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Ultima uscita/New issue:
"Perchè la
guerra in Ucraina ed in Europa? Psicoanalisi, trauma e resilienza"
A cura di Giuseppe Leo
Scritti di: V. Blikhar N.
Kalka
H. Katolyk L. Kuzo G. Leo
A. Marchuk
M. Tsyvinska S. Varvin
V. D. Volkan K. Zaitseva
Editore:
Frenis Zero
Collana: Id-entità Mediterranee
Anno: 2024
Pagine: 253
ISBN: 978-88-97479-76-5
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"Psicoanalisi in
una Terra Sacra. Possono gli psicoanalisti contribuire al dialogo
israelo-palestinese?"
A cura di Ambra Cusin & Giuseppe Leo
Scritti di: H.
Abramovitch A. Cusin G. Leo
M. Roth M. P. Salatiello V. Volkan
Publisher:
Frenis Zero
Collection: Id-entità Mediterranee
Year: 2024
Pages: 243
ISBN: 978-88-97479-74-1
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"Psychoanalysis
in a Holy Land" (English Edition)
Edited by Ambra Cusin & Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: H. Abramovitch A. Cusin
G. Leo M. Roth
M. P. Salatiello V. Volkan
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Collection: Mediterranean Id-entities
Year: 2024
Pages: 227
ISBN: 978-88-97479-47-5
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"Supervision
and Psychoanalysis" (English edition)
Edited by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: A.
Bass N.
Hoffmann
G. Leo
N. McWilliams D. Meltzer
G.
Riefolo M. Schmolke et
al.
Publisher:
Frenis Zero
Collection: Borders of Psychoanalysis
Year: 2023
Pages: 200
ISBN: 978-88-97479-46-8
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"Supervisione e Psicoanalisi" (Italian
edition)
A cura di Giuseppe Leo
Scritti di A.
Bass N. Hoffmann G. Leo
N. McWilliams D. Meltzer G.
Riefolo M. Schmolke et
al.
Editore Frenis
Zero
Collana Confini
della Psicoanalisi
Anno 2023
Pagine 210
ISBN 978-88-97479-44-4
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"Why War in
Ukraine and in Europe? Psychoanalysis, Trauma, and Resiliency" (English
Edition)
Edited by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: V. Blikhar N.
Kalka
H. Katolyk L. Kuzo G. Leo
A. Marchuk
M. Tsyvinska S. Varvin
V. D. Volkan K. Zaitseva
Publisher:
Frenis Zero
Collection: Mediterranean Id-entities
Year: 2023
Pages: 235
ISBN: 978-88-97479-42-0
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"Neuroscience
and Psychoanalysis" (3rd English Edition)
Edited by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: D.
Mann
G.Northoff
J. Przybyła A. N.
Schore
R. Stickgold B.A. Van Der
Kolk G.
Vaslamatzis M.P. Walker
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Frenis Zero
Collection: Psychoanalysis and Neuroscience
Year: 2023
Pages: 321
ISBN: 978-88-97479-40-6
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"Infant
research e psicoanalisi" (ediz. italiana)
A cura di: Giuseppe Leo
Scritti di: B.
Beebe K.
Lyons-Ruth J. P.
Nahum D. Schechter E. Solheim
C. Trevarthen E. Z.
Tronick
L. Vulliez-Coady
Editore: Frenis Zero
Collana: Confini della psicoanalisi
Year: 2022
Pages: 276
ISBN: 978-88-97479-38-3
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"Crisi ecologica e pandemia. Una sfida per la
psicoanalisi"
A cura di Giuseppe Leo
Scritti di: Hilda
Catz, Anna Ferruta, Marco Francesconi, Pietro R. Goisis, Robert
Hinshelwood Giuseppe Leo, Nancy McWilliams, Giuseppe Riefolo, Merav
Roth, Cosimo Schinaia, Daniela Scotto Di Fasano, Robert D. Stolorow
Editore: Frenis Zero
Collana: Confini della Psicoanalisi
Anno: 2022
Pages: 268
ISBN: 978-88-97479-36-9
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"Enactment in
Psicoanalisi"
(Edizione Italiana)
A cura di Giuseppe Leo &
Giuseppe Riefolo
Scritti di: Galit Atlas Efrat
Ginot
Jay Greenberg Jessica
Kraus Giuseppe
Leo Giuseppe
Riefolo Jeremy Safran
Editore: Frenis Zero
Collana: Confini della Psicoanalisi
Anno: 2022
Pages: 320
ISBN: 978-88-97479-34-5
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"Blown Lives. A Tale
for Spielrein, Gross, Tausk and the other losers of
psychoanalysis" by Giuseppe Leo
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-32-1
Anno/Year: 2021
Pages: 284
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book/Compra su Amazon
"My Ideas Felt Like
Outsize Clothes. A tale for Etty Hillesum" (Second Edition)
by Giuseppe Leo
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-28-4
Anno/Year: 2021
Pages: 128
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book/Compra su Amazon
"Infant
Research and Psychoanalysis" (Third Edition) edited by
Giuseppe Leo
"
Edited by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: B.
Beebe K. Lyons-Ruth J. P. Nahum D.
Schechter E. Solheim C.
Trevarthen E. Z.
Tronick
L. Vulliez-Coady
Publisher: Frenis Zero
Collection: Borders of Psychoanalysis
Year: 2021
Pages: 285
ISBN: 978-88-97479-24-6
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"Psychanalyse,
Lieux de Mémoire et Traumatismes Collectifs" (Third Edition) edited
by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: J.
Altounian, S. Amati Sas, W. Bohleber, M. El Husseini, R. El Khayat, Y.
Gampel R. Kaës, J. Kristeva, G. Leo, A. Loncan, P. Matvejević, M.-R.
Moro, S. Resnik, S. Varvin
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Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-22-2
Anno/Year: 2021
Pages: 546
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"Enactment
in Psychoanalysis" - Second Edition) edited by Giuseppe Leo
& Giuseppe Riefolo
Edited by Giuseppe Leo &
Giuseppe Riefolo
Writings by: G. Atlas
E. Ginot J.R. Greenberg J.
Kraus J.D. Safran
Publisher: Frenis Zero
Collection: Borders of Psychoanalysis
Year: 2020
Pages: 333
ISBN: 978-88-97479-19-2
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"My Ideas Felt Like
Outsize Clothes. A tale for Etty Hillesum" by Giuseppe Leo
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-33-8
Anno/Year: 2020
Pages: 122
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"Environmental
Crisis and Pandemic. A Challenge for Psychoanalysis" edited
by Giuseppe Leo (Second Edition)
Writings by: H.
Catz, A.
Ferruta,
M. Francesconi, P. R. Goisis, R. D. Hinshelwood, G. Leo, N.
McWilliams, G. Riefolo, M.
Roth, C. Schinaia, D. Scotto
Di Fasano, R. D. Stolorow
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Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-37-6
Anno/Year: 2020
Pages: 312
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"Psychanalyse,
Lieux de Mémoire et Traumatismes Collectifs" sous la direction
de Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: J.
Altounian, S. Amati Sas, W. Bohleber, M. El Husseini, R. El Khayat, Y.
Gampel R. Kaës, J. Kristeva, G. Leo, A. Loncan, P. Matvejević, M.-R.
Moro
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-29-1
Anno/Year: 2020
Pages: 482
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"Fear
of Lockdown. Psychoanalysis, Pandemic Discontents and Climate
Change" edited by Giuseppe
Leo
Writings by: H.
Catz, A.
Ferruta,
M. Francesconi, P. R. Goisis, G.
Leo, N. McWilliams, G.
Riefolo, M. Roth, C.
Schinaia, D. Scotto Di Fasano
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Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-21-5
Anno/Year: 2020
Pages: 295
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"Rock Music & Psychoanalysis"
Second Edition
Edited
by: Giuseppe Leo
Authored
by/autori: Lewis
Aron Heather
Ferguson Joseph LeDoux Giuseppe Leo John
Shaw Rod Tweedy
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Borders
of Psychoanalysis
Anno/Year: 2020
Pagine/Pages: 221
ISBN:978-88-97479-35-2
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"Essere nella cura"
Authored
by/autori: Giacomo
Di Marco & Isabella
Schiappadori
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Confini
della Psicoanalisi
Anno/Year: 2019
Pagine/Pages: 210
ISBN:978-88-97479-17-8
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"Enactment
in Psychoanalysis"
Edited by Giuseppe Leo &
Giuseppe Riefolo
Writings by: E.
Ginot J.R. Greenberg J. Kraus J.D. Safran
Publisher: Frenis Zero
Collection: Borders of Psychoanalysis
Year: 2019
Pages: 326
ISBN: 978-88-97479-15-4
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"Infant Research and Psychoanalysis"
Edited by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: B.
Beebe K. Lyons-Ruth J. P. Nahum E. Solheim C.
Trevarthen E. Z. Tronick L.
Vulliez-Coady
Publisher: Frenis Zero
Collection: Borders of Psychoanalysis
Year: 2018
Pages: 273
ISBN: 978-88-97479-14-7
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"Fundamentalism
and Psychoanalysis"
Edited by Giuseppe Leo
Prefaced by: Vamik D. Volkan
Writings by: L.
Auestad W. Bohleber S. Varvin
L. West
Publisher: Frenis Zero
Collection: Mediterranean Id-entities
Year: 2017
Pages: 214
ISBN: 978-88-97479-13-0
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"Psicoanalisi,
luoghi della resilienza ed immigrazione"
Edited
by/a cura di: Giuseppe Leo
Writings by/scritti
di:
S. Araùjo Cabral, L.
Curone,
M. Francesconi,
L.
Frattini,
S. Impagliazzo, D. Centenaro Levandowski, G. Magnani, M. Manetti, C.
Marangio, G.
A. Marra e Rosa, M.
Martelli,
M. R. Moro, R. K. Papadopoulos,
A. Pellicciari,
G. Rigon,
D. Scotto di Fasano, E. Zini, A. Zunino
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Mediterranean
Id-entities
Anno/Year: 2017
Pagine/Pages: 372
ISBN:978-88-97479-11-6
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"Psicoanalisi
in Terra Santa"
Edited
by/a cura di: Ambra Cusin & Giuseppe Leo
Prefaced by/prefazione
di:
Anna Sabatini Scalmati
Writings by/scritti
di:
H. Abramovitch A. Cusin M.
Dwairy A. Lotem M.
Mansur M. P. Salatiello Afterword
by/ Postfazione
di:
Ch. U.
Schminck-Gustavus
Notes by/ Note di: Nader Akkad
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Mediterranean
Id-entities
Anno/Year: 2017
Pagine/Pages: 170
ISBN:978-88-97479-12-3
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"Essere
bambini a Gaza. Il trauma infinito"
Authored
by/autore: Maria
Patrizia
Salatiello
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Mediterranean
Id-entities
Anno/Year: 2016
Pagine/Pages: 242
ISBN:978-88-97479-08-6
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Psychoanalysis,
Collective Traumas and Memory Places (English Edition)
Edited
by/a cura di: Giuseppe Leo Prefaced by/prefazione
di:
R.D.Hinshelwood
Writings by/scritti di: J.
Altounian W.
Bohleber J.
Deutsch
H. Halberstadt-Freud Y.
Gampel
N. Janigro R.K.
Papadopoulos
M. Ritter S. Varvin H.-J. Wirth
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Mediterranean
Id-entities
Anno/Year: 2015
Pagine/Pages: 330
ISBN:978-88-97479-09-3
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"L'uomo dietro al lettino" di Gabriele Cassullodi Gabriele Cassullodi Gabriele Cassullo
Prefaced by/prefazione di: Jeremy
Holmes
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Biografie
dell'Inconscio
Anno/Year: 2015
Pagine/Pages: 350
ISBN:978-88-97479-07-9
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"Neuroscience
and Psychoanalysis" (English Edition)
Edited by/a cura di: Giuseppe Leo
Prefaced by/prefazione di:
Georg Northoff
Writings by/scritti di: D.
Mann A. N. Schore R.
Stickgold
B.A. Van Der
Kolk
G. Vaslamatzis M.P. Walker
Editore/Publisher:
Edizioni Frenis Zero
Collection/Collana: Psicoanalisi e
neuroscienze
Anno/Year: 2014
Pagine/Pages: 300
ISBN:978-88-97479-06-2
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Vera
Schmidt, "Scritti su psicoanalisi infantile ed educazione"
Edited by/a cura di: Giuseppe
Leo
Prefaced by/prefazione di:
Alberto
Angelini
Introduced by/introduzione di:
Vlasta
Polojaz
Afterword by/post-fazione di: Rita
Corsa
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana: Biografie dell'Inconscio
Anno/Year: 2014
Pagine/Pages: 248
ISBN:978-88-97479-05-5
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Resnik,
S. et al. (a cura di Monica Ferri), "L'ascolto dei sensi e dei
luoghi nella relazione terapeutica"
Writings by:A.
Ambrosini, A. Bimbi, M.
Ferri,
G. Gabbriellini, A. Luperini, S.
Resnik,
S. Rodighiero, R. Tancredi, A. Taquini
Resnik, G. Trippi
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana: Confini della Psicoanalisi
Anno/Year: 2013
Pagine/Pages: 156
ISBN:978-88-97479-04-8
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Silvio
G. Cusin, "Sessualità e conoscenza"
A cura di/Edited by: A. Cusin
& G. Leo
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana/Collection: Biografie
dell'Inconscio
Anno/Year: 2013
Pagine/Pages: 476
ISBN: 978-88-97479-03-1
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AA.VV.,
"Psicoanalisi e luoghi della riabilitazione", a cura di G. Leo e G.
Riefolo (Editors)
A cura di/Edited by: G. Leo
& G. Riefolo
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana/Collection: Id-entità
mediterranee
Anno/Year: 2013
Pagine/Pages: 426
ISBN: 978-88-903710-9-7
Prezzo/Price:
€ 39,00
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AA.VV.,
"Scrittura e memoria", a cura di R. Bolletti (Editor)
Writings by: J. Altounian, S. Amati Sas, A. Arslan,
R. Bolletti, P. De Silvestris, M. Morello, A. Sabatini Scalmati.
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana: Cordoglio e pregiudizio
Anno/Year: 2012
Pagine/Pages: 136
ISBN: 978-88-903710-7-3
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AA.VV.,
"Lo
spazio velato. Femminile e
discorso
psicoanalitico"
a cura di G. Leo e L. Montani (Editors)
Writings by: A. Cusin, J. Kristeva, A. Loncan, S.
Marino, B. Massimilla, L. Montani, A. Nunziante Cesaro, S. Parrello, M.
Sommantico, G. Stanziano, L. Tarantini, A. Zurolo.
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana: Confini della psicoanalisi
Anno/Year: 2012
Pagine/Pages: 382
ISBN: 978-88-903710-6-6
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AA.VV., Psychoanalysis and its Borders, a cura di G. Leo (Editor)
Writings by: J.
Altounian, P. Fonagy, G.O. Gabbard, J.S. Grotstein, R.D. Hinshelwood,
J.P. Jimenez, O.F. Kernberg, S. Resnik.
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana/Collection: Borders of
Psychoanalysis
Anno/Year: 2012
Pagine/Pages: 348
ISBN: 978-88-974790-2-4
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AA.VV.,
"Psicoanalisi e luoghi della negazione", a cura di A. Cusin e G. Leo
Writings by:J.
Altounian, S. Amati Sas, M. e M. Avakian, W. A.
Cusin, N. Janigro, G. Leo, B. E. Litowitz, S. Resnik, A.
Sabatini Scalmati, G. Schneider, M. Šebek,
F. Sironi, L. Tarantini.
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Collana/Collection: Id-entità
mediterranee
Anno/Year: 2011
Pagine/Pages: 400
ISBN: 978-88-903710-4-2
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"The
Voyage Out" by Virginia Woolf
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
ISBN: 978-88-97479-01-7
Anno/Year: 2011
Pages: 672
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"Psicologia
dell'antisemitismo" di Imre Hermann
Author:Imre Hermann
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
ISBN: 978-88-903710-3-5
Anno/Year: 2011
Pages: 158
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"Vite
soffiate. I vinti della psicoanalisi" di
Giuseppe Leo
Editore/Publisher: Edizioni Frenis
Zero
Edizione: 2a
ISBN: 978-88-903710-5-9
Anno/Year: 2011
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"La Psicoanalisi
e i suoi confini" edited by Giuseppe Leo
Writings by: J. Altounian, P. Fonagy, G.O. Gabbard, J.S. Grotstein,
R.D. Hinshelwood, J.P. Jiménez, O.F. Kernberg, S. Resnik
Editore/Publisher: Astrolabio
Ubaldini
ISBN: 978-88-340155-7-5
Anno/Year: 2009
Pages: 224
Prezzo/Price: € 20,00
"La
Psicoanalisi. Intrecci Paesaggi Confini"
Edited by S. Fizzarotti Selvaggi, G.Leo.
Writings by: Salomon Resnik, Mauro Mancia,
Andreas Giannakoulas, Mario Rossi Monti, Santa Fizzarotti Selvaggi,
Giuseppe Leo.
Publisher: Schena Editore
ISBN 88-8229-567-2
Price: € 15,00
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|
Introduction
On narcissism
The concept of narcissism is one of the most complex and confusing ones
in psychoanalysis (Pulver, 1970). Throughout time, it has been applied
to a range of issues, including a self-oriented motivational state, a
normal phase of psychological development, a configuration of
personality traits, and a personality disorder. A popular image of a
narcissist is one of a vain and boastful, while a secretly insecure and
ashamed person (Bosson et al., 2008) who perceives his/her own needs
and goals as more significant than those of others.
Krizan and Herlache (2017) have recently developed the narcissism
spectrum model as an integrative theoretical account. In this model,
narcissistic traits were framed as diverse combinations of distinct and
conflicting approach-oriented (i.e., bold and grandiose) and
avoidance-oriented (i.e., reactive and vulnerable) qualities of
entitled self-importance. Grandiosity and vulnerability exist side by
side in the narcissistic personality and are expressed to varying
degrees. Deep-seated feelings of inferiority are masked with
surface-level feelings of superiority that keep the narcissistic person
unaware of self-loathing and require continual reinforcement (Bosson et
al., 2008). Other scholars (Weidmann et al., 2023) have proposed a
trifurcated perspective on narcissism consisting of agentic
(narcissistic admiration), antagonistic (narcissistic rivalry), and
neurotic (vulnerable) aspects.
Narcissism of minor differences
Identifying threats and forming alliances with others is essential for
the survival of humankind. People need to recognize potential dangers
to protect themselves and their communities. They also need to identify
with others to create a sense of belonging and security, boost
self-esteem, foster social cohesion, and provide a framework for
understanding the world. The categorization of others into friends or
foes is not steady. It can be fluid, context-dependent, and may
sometimes seem irrational. Moreover, it can also be used as a vehicle
for manipulation in political action, and can facilitate sowing fear in
society and discharging aggression onto the “other.”
The term narcissism of minor differences was coined by Freud in 1917
(Freud, 1953a) and elaborated upon in 1921 (Freud, 1953b). The idea
behind this concept is that individuals and groups with shared
characteristics, values, and backgrounds may emphasize slight
distinctions between them to assert their uniqueness and superiority.
Freud also suggested that the antipathy of the narcissism of minor
differences does not arise as a consequence of difference, but in the
creation of difference, in the exaggeration of its presence. Minor
differences gain importance at times of perceived threat. They may fuel
hatred between individuals and large groups in a conflict that might
seem disproportionate given the overall similarities.
A benign form of this phenomenon occurs in interpersonal relationships.
For example, two colleagues have a heated discussion about an
unimportant professional issue. Although their initial disagreement was
not very important, they continue displaying arguments to support their
opposing perspectives, thereby losing awareness of the discussion’s
triviality (Werman, 1988). Another example of a benign form of the
narcissism of minor differences is jokes wherein members of the “other”
group are stereotyped and made fun of. Think of jokes made by English
about Scots, or Aryan about Semites.
Unlike his other theories, Freud did not develop this one further,
leaving many questions unanswered. For example, he has not elaborated
in-depth on whether minor differences can cause animosity and conflicts
between people or that they are just used to rationalize hostility
(Kolsto, 2007).
The narcissism of minor differences phenomenon has been discussed later
by psychoanalysts and social scientists trying to understand societal
dynamics behind large-scale violent conflicts, like wars and genocide.
Volkan (1985) elaborated upon Freud’s theory and concluded that having
enemies and allies is a basic human evolutionary need connected with
the developmental processes in childhood. By age 3, a child should
complete uniting “good” and “bad” object representations and opposing
drive derivates attached to them and achieve an integrated
self-concept, integrated object representations, and tamed expression
of drives. In cases where this does not occur, unintegrated “bad”
object representations threaten a sense of self and need to be put “out
there,” projected on the “other,” to enhance a sense of self. The exact
process may unfold in adult individuals perceiving that their sense of
self is threatened.
Moreover, when individual identity is in peril, it seeks protection
under the umbrella of the collective identity of a large group,
ethnicity, or nationality. Individual identity regresses and becomes
subordinated to the collective one. When a large group feels
threatened, it may also project unwanted parts of its identity onto an
enemy and contaminate the enemy group with its negative mirror image.
This process can become malignant and fuel large-scale conflicts and
violence, dehumanization of the enemy, and its extermination. When the
enemy is a neighbor resembling the threatened group in many ways or a
member of the same large group, minor differences obtain a major
psychological significance. They are magnified to strengthen the
psychological gap between the opposing groups. They help increase
cohesion within a group by delineating it from outsiders and direct
aggression toward them (Volkan, 1986).
Figlio (2018) suggested another take on the narcissism of minor
differences and focused on the dread of sameness rather than on
antipathy toward the differences. It seems logical that humans stick
together with others who are like them, and that they feel antipathy
towards those who are different. However, Figlio (2018) argued that
antipathy is more rooted in sameness than in difference, and suggested
that a drive to be the same is an essential feature of narcissism. This
drive is ambivalent. The urge to merge goes along with the hatred of
it, and the conflicting illusions of omnipotence and helplessness exist
here side by side. Therefore, violence is suggested to be inherent in
sameness. The less difference between members of the same group, the
more pronounced the narcissism of minor differences will be, and the
higher the likelihood of a conflict.
Based on Volkan’s (1985, 1986) and Figlio’s (2018) perspectives, it can
be argued that when a large group’s identity is eroded, unease and
discomfort arise. A rift between the ego and the ego ideal occurs, and
the group ego ideal has to be defended. One way to do this is to create
an external enemy as a repository for projecting and discharging the
large group’s aggressive fantasies. The narcissism of minor differences
helps create the scapegoat. It does not arise as a consequence of
difference but is created to make a difference. A wounded large group
narcissism seeks soothing and regresses to the paranoid-schizoid
position (Rhode, 1994). Omnipotent illusions of “all good” and “all
bad” part-objects are split. The “all bad” part is projected onto the
enemy and experienced as threatening to the group identity, while the
“all good” part is identified in the ally and glorified. At the core of
the narcissism of minor differences lies an unease in an individual or
a large group, The challenge is not to manage differences, but the
endogenous unease in a society (Figlio, 2018).Some examples from
humankind’s history show how the narcissism of minor differences is
involved in large group psychology at times of perceived danger and how
it mediates malignant social developments.
In 1937, the Parsley massacre occurred in the Dominican Republic
(Turits, 2002). On the orders of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo,
the Dominican Army troops massacred many of the Haitian population
living in the Dominican frontier regions in response to reports of
Haitians stealing cattle and crops from Dominican borderland residents.
The massacre claimed the lives of an estimated 14,000–40,000 victims,
all men, women, and children, and lasted between 5 and 8 days. The two
groups inhabit the same island and share a similar ancestry, but are
divided by their different colonial pasts and they speak different
languages (Spanish and French). The Dominican troops interrogated
thousands of civilians in the border region, demanding that each person
say the word “parsley” (perejil in Spanish). If one could not pronounce
it with a rolling, Spanish r, he/ she was deemed Haitian and killed. A
minor difference (the language of the colonial power) between the two
peoples on the same island was inflated into a significant marker of
difference between them and was associated with massive bloodshed.
Between 1975 and 1979, more than 1 million Cambodians died during Pol
Pot’s rule due to forced labor, hunger, disease, torture, and
executions. Pol Pot wanted to establish a medieval agricultural state.
All cities were emptied, and the population had to work in fields.
Higher-educated Cambodians, such as teachers, were immediately killed;
sometimes, wearing glasses was enough. Wearing glasses symbolized
higher education and opposing political views. This minor difference
was invested with strong emotions of aggression and used as the marker
in the “auto-genocide” in this country (Charot, 2002).
In 1994, genocide took place in Rwanda. An estimated 500,000 to 1
million Tutsis (about 70% of the total population) and moderate Hutus
were murdered by the Hutu militia over 100 days. Hutus and Tutsis speak
the same language and share the same cultural background and belief
system. The only differences between them are their body heights and
traditional economies. While one group is engaged in agriculture, the
other is breeding livestock. The colonial rulers previously provided
this division of roles and considered Tutsis superior and privileged
over Hutus (Mann, 2005). These minor differences between the two
peoples were involved in one of the bloodiest genocides in modern
history.
The narcissism of minor resemblances
The narcissism of minor differences serves the delineation of the enemy
when an individual or a large group feels frightened, angry, and has
undergone narcissistic humiliation (Werman, 1988). However, the
opposite may also be the case. Searching for allies while feeling
vulnerable may also reduce feelings of anxiety and discomfort by
expanding the boundaries of individual and collective identities. The
narcissism of minor resemblances can be introduced as a new concept
helping to explain how searching for an ally operates on individual and
large group levels.
The narcissism of minor resemblances can operate benignly like that of
minor differences. However, it can also facilitate malignant aggression
under certain circumstances. Both processes will be described in the
following examples.
A white man walks the streets of Tokyo as a tourist. He feels uprooted
and far from home, somehow vulnerable and anxious. Everything around
him is different. He does not speak Japanese, cannot read Kanji
characters, and there are just a few directions in English on the
streets. To find a restaurant or store he is looking for takes a lot of
effort. People he asks for directions do not speak English. He has no
acquaintances in town and walks alone. Once he encounters another white
man in the street, chances are the two will greet each other, something
people in a megalopolis usually do not do. But now, they may do so
because they are both of the same race and feel different and alienated
in Tokyo. If the other man is in a similar frame of mind and the
opportunity presents itself, it is also possible that the two will
start talking to each other. Maybe they will even have a drink
together, get closer to each other, and “fraternize.” The narcissism of
minor resemblances may be at the root of this “fraternization.”
However, in conversation, they may find out that apart from their skin
color and the lingua franca (English, which is not their native
language), there are few other similarities between them. These two men
might never communicate with each other in different circumstances.
Still, confronted with feelings of estrangement and discomfort, they
may seek each other’s company to feel safer and more relaxed.
In 2014, the annexation of Crimea took place, and the Russian army
crossed the border into Ukraine to support separatists in the Donetsk
and Luhansk regions of eastern Ukraine. Trench warfare ensued and has
stood ever since without much line difference. NATO and the Dutch
state, being a part of it, have accused Russia of invading Ukraine
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 2014). No military action
followed, and economic sanctions were imposed upon Russia. Later in the
same year, Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17) was shot down by the
Russia-controlled forces in eastern Ukraine. The crew and all the 283
passengers were killed. The majority of them were Dutch citizens.
Following this incident, perceived in the Netherlands as a collective
trauma, a series of national commemoration ceremonies and the building
of the national MH17 monument occurred. The Dutch government started a
thorough legal investigation of the accident and, in 2022, sentenced
the accused in absentia to life imprisonment (Netherlands Public
Prosecution Office, 2023).
In 2016, Dutch citizens could vote in a referendum on Ukraine’s
accession to the Association Agreement with the 28 member states of the
European Union (EU). Only 32.2% of Dutch citizens participated in this
referendum, voting 61% against the accession (Rijksoverheid, 2016).
However, when the large-scale war between Russia and Ukraine broke out
in 2022, the public perception of the Ukraine conflict changed
dramatically in the Netherlands. People suddenly became in solidarity
with Ukraine; Ukrainian flags were spontaneously hung up on many
buildings in Dutch villages and cities, and people considered Ukrainian
soldiers fighting not only for the liberation of their own country but
also for democracy and freedom like those in the EU. The dominant
societal narrative of the war in Ukraine was that of its soldiers
defending the EU from Russian aggression, as Ukraine has been
considered the attacked outer boundary of the EU values (Politi et al.,
2023). The aspiration of Ukraine to become a democratic society and the
admiration for its bravery in confronting Russia may have been the
minor resemblances between the Dutch and the Ukrainian peoples. It has
helped mobilize public support for large-scale Dutch and EU
humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine, which has continued ever
since. The Netherlands warmly welcomed refugees from Ukraine who are
subject to different, less restrictive legal rules than asylum seekers
and refugees from other war zones (Dahinden, 2022). As of August 2023,
the total number of Ukrainian and Russian troops killed or wounded in
the war was nearing 500,000 (Cooper et al., 2023). The war has resulted
in Europe’s fastest-growing refugee crisis since World War II, global
food shortages, and adverse effects on the world economy (Behnassi and
El Haiba, 2022; UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 2022).
From a psychodynamic point of view, the narcissism of minor
resemblances seems to occur unconsciously through identification in
which an individual or a group assimilates positive images and
functions of another within the self. Thereby, large groups also
project ego-syntonic parts of the self onto allies and ego-dystonic
ones onto enemies.
Discussion
It has been argued that the narcissism of minor differences has been
insufficiently elaborated in psychoanalysis because of its triviality
(Werman, 1988). The same may apply to the narcissism of minor
resemblances, previously not even coined as a term. However, both
concepts can be valuable for the understanding of individual and
large-group psychology at times of perceived uncertainty and threat.
In all the examples presented, the narcissisms of minor differences and
resemblances can be perceived as vehicles, “reliable identifiers” of
the enemy and the ally groups. The minor differences can be identified
along ethnic lines, as illustrated by the examples from the Dominican
Republic and Rwanda, along social lines, as found in the Cambodia
example, and along economic, political, racial, cultural, and other
affiliations. The narcissism of minor resemblances may also operate
along racial lines, like in the Tokyo example, along ideological lines,
like in the Ukraine war example, and others.
Kolsto (2007) has argued that hostility between opposing groups emerges
due to a fight for power/status, economic interests, commodities, or
territory. These causes are also the roots of conflicts presented in
this article. Large-scale hostilities start upon a political decision.
However, they can be sparked by a narcissistic injury perceived by the
political elite and resonating with the emotions of a large group. The
minor differences and resemblances are involved in the process later
on, at the beginning of a conflict. Figlio (2018) pointed out that
discomfort within a large group’s self and identity and a large group’s
narcissistic injury may lie at the core of the creation of the
narcissism of minor differences. Narcissistic ego ideal can be repaired
through a painful process of self-examination. However, projecting the
unwanted parts of the ego onto an enemy and fighting it is,
psychologically, a much easier option. I argue that large-scale
hostilities unfold when the “objective” aims of a conflict are
supported by a “fertile” psychological constellation within a large
group. Psychological mechanisms help shape the emotional involvement of
a large group in a conflict, a conflict’s narrative, the
rationalization of hostilities (Werman, 1988), and the motivation of
large group members to participate in it.
Reflecting further on the Ukraine example, some critical processes have
possibly facilitated the conflict. These were Russia’s loss of
importance and power in international relations, an erosion of the
United States importance in world politics and economy, the relative
loss of national identities of the European states due to the EU
unification, and a range of global sociopolitical developments,
including mass migrations, post-COVID economic crisis, and climate
change. All these processes have in common that they have caused
narcissistic injuries to the respective large groups involved in the
conflict, and have enhanced otherwise feelings of uncertainty and
unease. A fertile soil for conflict in a psychological sense has
emerged.
Regarding the involvement of the narcissism of minor resemblances in
the conflict, the similarities between the EU, the Dutch, and the
Ukrainian societies have objectively not increased since the Dutch
referendum in 2016. These are nations of the same race but with
different histories and cultures. However, they both seem to share the
fear of Russian aggression rooted in world history. In the past, the
dividing line between the West and the former Soviet Union was the
antagonism between capitalism and communism. Upon the collapse of the
Soviet Union, a new dividing line was established; the one between the
Western democratic values stressing respect for human rights and the
Russian totalitarian and autocratic society.
When a political decision to start the war was taken, the EU and the
Dutch large groups seemed to have identified with the aspirations of
the Ukrainians to become a society based on Western societal norms and
values and to fight against Russia. Ukrainians were psychologically
(re)categorized from the outgroup to the ingroup members of the EU. The
psychological boundaries of the EU identity have expanded to Ukraine
and identity fusion occurred (Politi et al., 2023). The EU and the
Dutch large groups have projected their cultures’ “good” object
representations onto Ukraine. At the same time, Russia became the
repository of the “all bad” projections. European unity was revitalized
in the face of a common enemy (Politi et al., 2023), and the
involvement in the conflict unfolded according to the principle “the
enemy of our enemy is our friend.” Displaying Ukrainian flags in many
cities and villages across the EU can be perceived as a marker of
collective regression, the appearance of ritualistic use of symbols to
create a link between individuals within a large group entity (Volkan,
1985). The identifications and projections involved may mend, at least
temporarily, the wounded narcissism of the EU and the Dutch societies.
However, a collective regression to the paranoid-schizoid position
incurs a risk of escalating large-scale violence. Thereby, internal
identity problems within the EU and the Dutch societies will remain
unaddressed. The narcissisms of minor differences and resemblances seem
to serve as a defense mechanism against self-examination of
narcissistic injuries.
Reflecting on the narcissism spectrum model (Krizan and Herlache,
2017), it can be argued that the narcissism of minor differences serves
as an antidote for the grandiose aspect of narcissism, while the
narcissism of minor resemblances soothes the vulnerable aspect.
Therefore, both phenomena seem to be involved at the same time in the
process of reparation of narcissistic injury to a varying degree when
the large group self-regresses to the paranoid-schizoid position.
Moreover, it can be argued that social media also plays an important
facilitating role in conflicts nowadays. Modern Western society is
considered anthropocentric, highly individualized, and immersed in the
influential media world. This world seems to be characterized by
superficiality and emphasizes the emotional perception of events around
us at the expense of a perspective based on knowledge, insight, and
reason. The virtual space of the Internet and social media inundates
the public with information about political events around the world
with unprecedented immediacy. The availability and quantity (but not
necessarily quality) of information can make one feel that the world is
becoming increasingly unsafe and violent. It enforces and spins off
feelings of anxiety, insecurity, and impending doom in individuals and
societies. A recent study of psychological well-being in Europe after
the outbreak of war in Ukraine (Scharbert et al., 2024) suggested a
reciprocal relationship between daily well-being and salience.
Individuals worldwide posted more war-related tweets on days when they
were particularly distressed by it, and they became more distressed by
being exposed to war-related content on social media.
Awareness of psychological processes within a large group contributes
to the understanding of social and political developments. It may shed
light on the seemingly inexplicable, volatile, and unpredictable
behavior of groups in conflict (Volkan, 1985). The ability to signal
and interpret these processes promptly may help prevent populistic
political manipulations and malignant socio-political developments.
However, the narcissism of minor resemblances can also enhance empathy
and solidarity. It can start processes aiming at cooperation and
peacebuilding, and at understanding and addressing the core causes of
societal discomfort.
Moreover, on the level of individual trauma therapists assisting
survivors of man-made disasters, knowledge of large-group psychological
processes in general and the narcissism of minor differences and
resemblances, in particular, may also be helpful. Survivors often
question themselves and therapists about underlying reasons for
atrocities they have been exposed to. They try to understand how their
long-time neighbors have turned into enemies, how bloodshed could
occur, and how and why mass violence starts and unfolds in previously
peaceful communities. They try to make meaning of traumatic life events
experienced to cope with feelings of powerlessness and anxiety. Other
survivors may suffer from moral injury (Litz et al., 2009) related to
the inner conflict arising from morally ambiguous situations occurring
when someone has made decisions or witnessed actions that go against
deeply held beliefs about what is right or wrong. These survivors
struggle with self-forgiveness, and awareness of the concepts discussed
may help them find some explanations for their experiences. Survivors
may also deal with a dilemma concerning the upbringing of their
children, which norms and values to transfer to the next generation,
what to teach the offspring about traumatic experiences they have
survived, and over norms and values of the human race in general.
Knowledge about concepts of the narcissism of minor differences and
resemblances may facilitate the meaning-making process in survivors and
help trauma treatment.
The theoretical considerations presented in this article are based on
the author’s observations and are rooted in the works of other
scholars. However, the concept presented lacks scientific validation
and should be further examined. Moreover, the concept of narcissism
should be developed more in-depth to lead to a much-needed consensus on
common terminology. The complexity of this concept and its different
dimensions must be unraveled. An integrative framework for its
different dimensions needs to be better understood, as the development
of narcissism seems to reflect principles of equifinaity and
multifinality (Cicchetti and Rogosch, 1996).
Conclusion
The narcissism of minor resemblances is suggested to be a helpful
concept for understanding large group dynamics at times of perceived
uncertainty and peril. It operates side by side with the concept of the
narcissism of minor differences in the process of creating enemies and
allies. The narcissism of minor resemblances may help mend a large
group’s narcissistic injuries, but it also serves as a defense against
their self-examination. It is hypothesized that it helps repair the
vulnerable aspect of wounded narcissism, while the narcissism of minor
differences may serve as an antidote for the grandiose aspect.
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