Presentation   News Events   Archives    Links   Sections Submit a     paper Mail

FRENIS  zero 

 Rivista di Psicoanalisi Neuro-evolutiva  

  Home Frenis Zero

        Articolo allegato al numero monografico (N. 11, anno VI, gennaio 2009) di Frenis Zero dal titolo "Autobiografie dell'inconscio".

 

 

  " LUTTO E MELANCONIA RIVISITATO: corrispondenze tra i principi della metapsicologia freudiana e le scoperte empiriche della neuropsichiatria"

 

 

 

 

 

 di Robin L. Carhart-Harris1  , Helen S. Mayberg2  , Andrea L. Malizia1  , David Nutt1

1Psychopharmacology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

2Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA

 

 

Il presente articolo è la traduzione italiana di "Mourning and melancholia revisited: correspondences between principles of Freudian metapsychology and empirical findings in neuropsychiatry", uscito su "Annals of general Psychiatry" 2008, 7:9. Il testo contenuto in questa pagina corrisponde alla prima metà dell'articolo originale. L'articolo nella sua integralità verrà proposto in un prossimo libro, pubblicato dalle Edizioni Frenis Zero, dedicato al dialogo tra psicoanalisi e neuroscienze. La traduzione in italiano è di Giuseppe Leo.

Abstract

Freud began his career as a neurologist studying the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, but it was his later work in psychology that would secure his place in history. This paper draws attention to consistencies between physiological processes identified by modern clinical research and psychological processes described by Freud, with a special emphasis on his famous paper on depression entitled 'Mourning and melancholia'. Inspired by neuroimaging findings in depression and deep brain stimulation for treatment resistant depression, some preliminary physiological correlates are proposed for a number of key psychoanalytic processes. Specifically, activation of the subgenual cingulate is discussed in relation to repression and the default mode network is discussed in relation to the ego. If these correlates are found to be reliable, this may have implications for the manner in which psychoanalysis is viewed by the wider psychological and psychiatric communities.

 

 


 

 

 

PREMESSA

<<Quando qualche idea nuova approda nella scienza, e viene salutata all'inizio come una scoperta e come tale viene di regola  anche messa in discussione, la ricerca obiettiva subito dopo rivela che dopo tutto in realtà non si trattava di una novità>>1   .

L'intenzione di questo articolo è quella di attirare l'attenzione sulle concordanze tra la metapsicologia freudiana e le recenti scoperte in neuropsichiatria, specialmente quelle riguardanti la depressione.  Sarà fatto un esempio di come le scoperte nelle tecniche di 'imaging' cerebrale ed in neurofisiologia possano fornire un contesto rinnovato per la maggior parte delle fondamentali teorie della psicoanalisi. Nel suo famoso scritto "Lutto e melanconia", Freud  operò un'elegante applicazione della teoria psicoanalitica alla malattia depressiva. E' compito del presente articolo creare dei parallelismi tra i processi psicologici descritti da Freud e quelli fisiologici identificati dalla moderna ricerca clinica al fine di fornire una più ampia comprensione dell'intero fenomeno.

tto la tutela di Meynert, Freud iniziò la sua carriera come neurologo studiando l'anatomia e la fisiologia del midollo spinale. Ispirato dalla tradizione di Helmholtz (1821-1894) e dal "parallelismo psico-fisico" reso affascinante da Hering (1838-1918), Sherrington (1857-1952) e Hughlings-Jackson (1835-1911), Freud cominciò a considerare più seriamente il modo in cui una scienza di movimenti energetici cerebrali potesse dar conto dei fenomeni psicologici2  . E' stato detto che Freud non ha mai veramente abbandonato le sue radici fisiologiche3-4  e che i suoi primi 'flirts' con il parallelismo psico-fisico abbiano continuato ad abitare <<l'intera serie dei [suoi] lavori teorici fino all'ultimo>>4   .

Questo nostro lavoro inizierà con una rassegna di alcuni concetti chiave della metapsicologia freudiana (libido, investimento, investimento oggettuale, Io, Super-Io, Es, inconscio, processo psichico primario e secondario, rimozione) e verrà fatto un tentativo di ipotizzare i loro correlati fisiologici. Farà seguito una sintesi di "Lutto e melanconia" ed un ampio sguardo alle scoperte più rilevanti della neuropsichiatria. Di particolare interesse sono quelle emergenti dalle tecniche di "neuroimaging" per quanto riguarda la depressione e l'umore depresso provocato, la stimolazione cerebrale profonda(DBS) di una prozione dell'area cingolata ("subgenual cingulate"- area di Brodmann 25/Cg25) per il trattamento della depressione resistente, la stimolazione elettrica delle regioni mediali del lobo temporale, e l'atrofia regionale e perdita gliale nel cervello di pazienti affetti da depressione maggiore.

Prima di iniziare, è importante fare pochi brevi commenti sul principale parallelismo psico-fisico. Tracciare delle connessioni tra fenomeni psicologici e biologici era un approccio verso cui Freud era sia critico:

<<Eviterò accuratamente la tentazione di determinare la localizzazione psichica in qualsiasi modalità anatomica>> [5]

<<Ogni tentativo di scoprire una localizzazione dei processi mentali... è fallito completamente. Lo stesso destino attenderà ogni teoria che tenti di riconoscere la posizione anatomica del sistema [di coscienza] - come presente a livello corticale, e di localizzare i processi inconsci nelle parti sottocorticali del cervello. C'è uno hiatus che al momento non può essere colmato, e nemmeno è questo uno dei compiti della psicologia da portare a compimento. La nostra topografia psichica allo stato attuale non ha nulla a che vedere con l'anatomia>>[6].

ma anche ricettivo:

<<Tutte le nostre idee provvisorie in psicologia si baseranno presumibilmente un giorno su una sottostruttura organica>> [7]

L'ambiguità nella posizione di Freud si può spiegare col suo essere critico nei confronti dell'approccio modulare o "segregazionista" [8] e con la sua preferenza per un modello più dinamico [9]. Essenzialmente, Freud era contrario a votare per le cause anatomiche dei fenomeni psicologici, ma non al tracciare dei paralleli tra processi psicologici e fisiologici:

<<E' probabile che la catena degli eventi fisiologici del sistema nervoso non stia in connessione causale con gli eventi psichici. Gli eventi fisiologici non cessano appena cominciano quelli psichici; al contrario, la catena fisiologica continua. Ciò che accade è semplicemente che, dopo un certo istante temporale, ognuno (o qualcuno) dei suoi collegamenti ha un fenomeno psichico corrispondente a se stesso. Di conseguenza, lo psichico è un processo parallelo al fisiologico - "un concomitante dipendente" [9].

Integrare la psicoanalisi con le moderne neuroscienze è uno sforzo difficile e controverso. Si dovrebbe chiarire sin dall'inizio ciò che crediamo possibile si possa ottenere con questo approccio. La psicoanalisi può essere vista su due livelli: un livello ermeneutico, interpretativo o basato sul significato; ed uno metapsicologico, basato sui processi mentali.  Il livello ermeneutico è di per se stesso soggettivo. La questione che spesso è stata sollevata è se sia possibile identificare delle coordinate spaziotemporali di significato soggettivo. A questa visione ha dato il suo contributo Paul McLean nel suo libro fondamentale "The triune brain in evolution" [10]:

<<Dato che il cervello soggettivo fa unicamente affidamento sulla derivazione dell'informazione immateriale, non si può mai stabilire un metro immutabile per se stesso... L'informazione è informazione, non materia o energia>> [10].

Sarebbe non corretto ascrivere questa posizione al dualismo. Il parallelismo psicofisico è un approccio materialista che riconosce che il significato emerge nl tempo tra le reti dei sistemi comunicativi. E' necessario affermare che l'evidenza citata in questo articolo non può logicamente convalidare la psicoanalisi a livello ermeneutico e neppure fornisce alcuna prova sull'efficacia della psicoanalisi come modalità di trattamento (si veda alla nota [11] per una rassegna). Ciò che crediamo si possa fare, comunque, è riunire linee convergenti di ricerca a supporto della topografia freudiana della mente. Le scoperte citate nel seguito di questo articolo descrivono cambiamenti nei processi fisiologici che sono paralleli a cambiamenti nei processi psicologici; comunque, le misurazioni oggettive non gettano nessuna luce sullo specifico contenuto o significato avuto all'interno di questi processi. Accanto all'interpretazione, molto del lavoro di Freud è stato dedicato alla teorizzazione dei processi psichici dinamici; le energie che fluiscono dentro e fuori dalle province mentali, l'energia investita, ostruita e scaricata nell'ambito della mente. E' questo livello metapsicologico della psicoanalisi che  crediamo sia il più accessibile all'integrazione con le moderne neuroscienze.

 
Un'introduzione a qualche termine chiave della metapsicologia freudiana
Libido

<<Libido significa in psicoanalisi in primo luogo la forza (che si pensa possa essere variabile e misurabile quantitativamente) delle pulsioni sessuali dirette verso un oggetto - "sessuale" nel senso esteso richiesto dalla teoria analitica >> [12].

A partire dal suo primissimo uso che sia mai stato registrato [13] il termine "libido" è stato utilizzato per denotare la principale energia del sistema nervoso. Freud differenziò la "libido" da una più generale "energia psichica":

<<Abbiamo definito il concetto di libido come una forza variabile in senso quantitativo che potrebbe servire come misura dei processi e delle trasformazioni che avvengono nel campo dell'eccitamento sessuale. Distinguiamo questa libido rispetto alla sua speciale origine dall'energia che si deve supporre sottenda i processi mentali in generale>> [14].

L'uso estensivo fatto da Freud del termine "sessuale" lo ha portato ad essere in conflitto con Jung, il quale ipotizzò che la principale energia del sistema nervoso non fosse di per se stessa sessuale [15]. Verosimilmente, le due prospettive non sono inconciliabili. Possiamo considerare la "libido" freudiana in connessione con il sistema pulsionale motivazionale (si veda oltre il paragrafo su l'Es) e con il ritiro e l'investimento dell'energia cerebrale (si veda oltre il paragrafo sull'Io). L'"energia psichica" di Jung può essere considerata in modo meno specifico come energia cerebrale in generale.

 

Investimento ("cathexis")

L'originale tedesco "Besetzung" si traduce letteralmente come "occupazione", "riempimento" o "investimento". Il neologismo "cathexis" non era particolarmente amato da Freud [16]. Freud per primo usò il termine su un livello esplicitamente fisiologico, riferendosi ai neuroni << "cathected" con una certa quantità di [energia] [2], sistemi <<caricati con una somma di eccitazione>> [17] e <<provvisti di una quota di affetto>> [18]. In breve, il termine "cathexis" significa "investimento libidico". E' un concetto importante in modo vitale per l'integrazione della metapsicologia freudiana con i principi delle moderne neuroscienze. In questo articolo, discutiamo i cambiamenti della risposta emodinamica e di altre misure neurofisiologiche in relazione al ritiro  e all'investimento della libido.

 

Investimento oggettuale ("Object cathexis")

Il concetto di "oggetto" è usato in un senso vasto in psicoanalisi per riferirsi ad oggetti letterali, astratti e simbolici. Persone, compiti, attività ed idee possono tutti servire da oggetti. Il processo dell'investimento oggettuale ("objet cathexis") può essere confrontato con il processo della conoscenza diretta verso un obiettivo, dato che entrambi richiedono investimento libidico. Sulla base dei dati di "neuroimaging" sulla depressione (si veda oltre nel paragrafo su "Scoperte neuropsichiatriche nella depressione correlate coi principi della metapsicologia freudiana"), proponiamo che l'attivazione della corteccia prefrontale dorsolaterale (DLPFC) si correli con l'investimento oggettuale, mentre una riduzione di tale attivazione sia correlata con un diminuito investimento oggettuale che si manifesta in depressione sotto forma di anedonia (si veda oltre il paragrafo sull'ipofrontalità). Come discusso in questa sessione, l'attivazione del DLPFC è accompagnata da una de-attivazione in una rete di regioni note come rete neuronale della modalità di funzionamento di base ("default-mode network" - DMN) [19]. Il DMN è altamente attivo in condizioni di riposo cognitivo. Le regioni coinvolte durante l'attivazione cognitiva vengono qui denominate rete orientata all'oggetto ("object-oriented network"- ON). Proponiamo che l'attivazione dell'ON e la de-attivazione del DMN si correlino col processo di investimento oggettuale.

 

L'io

L'originale tedesco "das Ich" traduce in modo letterale "l'Io". E' spiacevole che i termini di Freud non siano stati tradotti in modo più letterale dato che gli originali contengono un richiamo che si è perso nella traduzione.

Freud usava il concetto di io in una gran varietà di differenti modi; un modo utile di ottenere un significato di differenti applicazioni, consiste nel citare qualche esempio del suo uso:

1. Un referente del senso conscio del sé:

<<In ogni individuo c'è un'organizzazione coerente dei processi mentali; e questo lo chiamiamo il suo io. E' a questo io che la coscienza si attacca>> [1].

2. Una forza inconscia che mantiene la coesione del sé:

<<E' certo che gran parte dell'io è esso stesso inconscio e soprattutto quello che possiamo chiamare il suo nucleo; solo una piccola porzione di esso è coperta dal termine "preconscio">> [20].

3. Un nucleo di coesione somatica:

<<L'io è per prima cosa e principalmente un io corporeo>> [1].

4. Una riserva di libido:

<<Perciò ci formiamo l'idea che c'è un originario investimento libidico dell'io, da cui qualcosa viene in seguito destinato agli oggetti>> [7].

<<L'io è una vera ed originaria riserva di libido>> [20].

5. L'agente primario della rimozione:

<<L'io è la facoltà che mette in moto la rimozione>> [12].

Dato che ci sono molte differenti funzioni dell'io, sarebbe contro-intuitivo suggerire che esso abbia dimora in una data regione del cervello. Sulla base di un gran numero di studi di "neuroimaging", proponiamo che una rete altamente connessa di regioni, principalmente incorporate nella corteccia mediale prefrontale (mPFC), nella corteccia posteriore cingolata (PCC), nel lobulo parietale inferiore (IPL) e nelle regioni temporali mediali [19, 21-31], soddisfi molti dei criteri dell'io freudiano. Questa conglomerazione di attività è stata denominata la "rete della modalità di funzionamento base" ("default mode network") [19] (figura 1).

 

thumbnailFigura 1. Regioni positivamente correlate con il " default mode network" (in arancione), soprattutto la corteccia mediale prefrontale (mPFC), la   corteccia cingulata posteriore (PCC), il   lobulo  parietale inferiore e    le regioni temporali mediali. L'attività in queste regioni si è dimostrato che diminuisce  durante la prestazione cognitiva diretta verso un obiettivo. Le aree mostrate in blu sono  negativamente correlate con il "default mode network" (DMN) e possono essere descritte come una rete orientata verso l'oggetto "object-oriented network" (ON). L' ON è attivato in modo consistente durante i compiti cognitivi diretti verso un obiettivo, ma è relativamente inattivo in condizioni di riposo. Si ipotizza nel presente articolo che il  DMN sia funzionalmente coerente con l'io freudiano. L' immagine  è riprodotta col permesso di http://www.blackwellsynergy.com/ webcite[289].

 

Un'analisi recente in un ampio campione di volontari sani ha mostrato che la connettività all'interno del DMN subisce un marcato aumento con la maturazione dall'infanzia all'età adulta [31]. L'attività nel nodo mediale prefrontale del DMN è stato strettamente associato con l'auto-riflessione (si veda ad es., [22,24,27,32]) e recenti evidenze suggeriscono che la corteccia mediale prefrontale (mPFC)  eserciti la principale causalità all'interno di questa rete [33]. La corteccia posteriore cingolata (PCC) ed il lobulo parietale inferiore (IPL) sono stati associati con la propriocezione [34,35] mentre la corteccia posteriore cingolata (PCC) e le regioni temporali mediali sono state associate al recupero dei ricordi autobiografici [36-39]. Il DMN mostra un alto livello di connettività funzionale in condizioni di riposo [28,33]. L'attività in questa rete diminuisce in modo consistente durante l'impegno in compiti cognitivi diretti verso un obiettivo [28, 33, 40] e la connettività all'interno della rete neuronale  tende a diminuire durante gli stati di ridotta coscienza [41,42]. In termini freudiani, la cognitività diretta verso un obiettivo richiede uno spostamento di libido (energia) dalla riserva dell'io (il DMN) e del suo investimento negli oggetti (attivazione del DLPFC). Ci sono evidenze per cui questa funzione  venga ad essere compromessa in un gran numero di disturbi psichiatrici, compresa la depressione [43-48].

 

<<L'io è una grande riserva  da cui la libido, che è destinata agli oggetti, fluisce via ed a cui ritorna da quegli oggetti>> [49].

In aggiunta ai nodi del mPFC e del PCC nell'ambito del DMN e alla loro relazione con l'io, ipotizziamo sulla base dei dati di "neuroimaging" e delle scoperte provenienti dalla stimolazione cerebrale profonda ( si veda oltre il paragrafo sulle scoperte neuropsichiatriche nella depressione correlate coi principi della metapsicologia freudiana) che la corteccia mediale prefrontale (PFC) nella porzione ventromediale (vmPFC) eserciti una forte influenza inibitrice sui centri emozionali e motivazionali ("visceromotori") [50]. Questa forza inibitrice è la funzione più primitiva dell'io. Come viene  oltre elaborato questo punto, la corteccia prefrontale ventromediale (vmPFC) gioca un ruolo importante  nella patofisiologia della depressione. Ad esempio, si è trovato che l'inibizione della regione ventrale del ginocchio del corpo calloso, l'area cingolata Cg25, allevia la sintomatologia depressiva in pazienti affetti da depressione resistente (TRD) [51]. L'area Cg25 e la regione ad essa prossimale sembrano esercitare un'influenza modulatoria sui centri chiave "visceromotori" come l'amigdala, l'area tegmentale ventrale (VTA) ed il nucleus accumbens (NAc) [50, 52]. Si è visto che certi centri limbici (ad es., l'amigdala) sono patologicamente attivi nella depressione (si veda la voce bibliografica [50] per una rassegna).

 

 
 
(L'articolo continua su un prossimo libro delle Edizioni Frenis Zero)

       

BIBLIOGRAFIA

 

1.   Freud S: The ego and the id. 19th edition. London: Vintage; 1923. OpenURL

Return to text

2.   Freud S: Project for a scientific psychology. 1st edition. London: Vintage; 1895. OpenURL

Return to text

3.   Pribram K, Gill M: Freud's project re-assessed. Tiptree, UK: Anchor Press; 1976. OpenURL

Return to text

4.   Strachey J: Freud S (1886–1899). Project for a scientific psychology. 1st edition. Edited by: Strachey J. London: Vintage; 1954. OpenURL

Return to text

5.   Freud S: The interpretation of dreams. London: Penguin; 1900. OpenURL

Return to text

6.   Freud S: The unconscious. 14th edition. London: Vintage; 1915. OpenURL

7.   Freud S: On narcissism. 14th edition. London: Vintage; 1914. OpenURL

8.   Fletcher P, McKenna PJ, Friston KJ, Frith CD, Dolan RJ: Abnormal cingulate modulation of fronto-temporal connectivity in schizophrenia.

Neuroimage 1999, 9:337-342. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

9.   Freud S: On aphasia. 14th edition. London: Vintage; 1891. OpenURL

10.  MacLean PD: The triune brain in evolution. New York: Plenum Press; 1990. OpenURL

11.  Fonagy P: Psychoanalysis today.

World Psychiatry 2003, 2:73-80. PubMed Abstract | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

12.  Freud S: Neurosis and psychosis. 19th edition. London: Vintage; 1924. OpenURL

13.  Freud S: Draft F. 1st edition. London: Vintage; 1894. OpenURL

14.  Freud S: Three essays on the theory of sexuality. 7th edition. London: Vintage; 1905. OpenURL

15.  Jung CG: On psychic energy. In On the nature of the psyche. New York: Routledge; 1928. OpenURL

16.  Strachey J: Freud S (1893–1899). The emergence of Freud's fundamental hypotheses. 3rd edition. Edited by: Strachey J. London: Vintage; 1924. OpenURL

17.  Freud S: The psychoneuroses of defence. 3rd edition. London: Vintage; 1894. OpenURL

18.  Freud S: Some points for an organic study of hysterical and motor paralyses. 1st edition. London: Vintage; 1893. OpenURL

19.  Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL: A default mode of brain function.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001, 98:676-682. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

20.  Frued : Beyond the pleasure principle. 18th edition. London: Vintage; 1920. OpenURL

21.  Gusnard DA, Raichle ME: Searching for a baseline: functional imaging and the human brain.

Nat Rev Neurosci 2001, 2:685-694. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

22.  Gusnard DA, Akbudak E, Shulman GL, Raichle ME: Medial prefrontal cortex and self-referential mental activity: relation to a default mode of brain function.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001, 98:4259-4264. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

23.  Greicius MD, Krasnow B, Reiss AL, Menon V: Functional connectivity in the resting brain: a network analysis of the default mode hypothesis.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100:253-258. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

24.  Johnson SC, Baxter LC, Wilder LS, Pipe JG, Heiserman JE, Prigatano GP: Neural correlates of self-reflection.

Brain 2002, 125:1808-1814. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

25.  Vogeley K, May M, Ritzl A, Falkai P, Zilles K, Fink GR: Neural correlates of first-person perspective as one constituent of human self-consciousness.

J Cogn Neurosci 2004, 16:817-827. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

26.  Kelley WM, Macrae CN, Wyland CL, Caglar S, Inati S, Heatherton TF: Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study.

J Cogn Neurosci 2002, 14:785-794. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

27.  Fossati P, Hevenor SJ, Graham SJ, Grady C, Keightley ML, Craik F, Mayberg H: In search of the emotional self: an fMRI study using positive and negative emotional words.

Am J Psychiatry 2003, 160:1938-1945. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

28.  Fox MD, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Corbetta M, Van Essen DC, Raichle ME: The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005, 102:9673-9678. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

29.  Fransson P: Spontaneous low-frequency BOLD signal fluctuations: an fMRI investigation of the resting-state default mode of brain function hypothesis.

Hum Brain Map 2005, 26:15-29. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

30.  Greicius MD, Supekar K, Menon V, Dougherty RF: Resting-state functional connectivity reflects structural connectivity in the default mode network.

Cereb Cortex 2008.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

31.  Fair DA, Cohen AL, Dosenbach NU, Church JA, Miezin FM, Barch DM, Raichle ME, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL: The maturing architecture of the brain's default network.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2008, 105:4028-4032. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

32.  Buckner RL, Carroll DC: Self-projection and the brain.

Trends Cogn Sci 2006, 11:49-57. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

33.  Uddin LQ, Clare Kelly AM, Biswal BB, Xavier Castellanos F, Milham MP: Functional connectivity of default mode network components: correlation, anticorrelation, and causality.

Hum Brain Map 2008, in press. OpenURL

34.  Saxe R, Xiao DK, Kovacs G, Perrett DI, Kanwisher N: A region of right posterior superior temporal sulcus responds to observed intentional actions.

Neuropsychologia 2004, 42:1435-1446. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

35.  Stark M, Coslett H, Saffran E: Impairment of an egocentric map of locations: Implications for perception and action.

Cogn Neuropsychol 1996, 13:481-523. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

36.  Maddock RJ, Garrett AS, Buonocore MH: Remembering familiar people: the posterior cingulate cortex and autobiographical memory retrieval.

Neurosci 2001, 104:667-676. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

37.  Maguire EA, Mummery CJ: Differential modulation of a common memory retrieval network revealed by positron emission tomography.

Hippocampus 1999, 9:54-61. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

38.  Vincent JL, Snyder AZ, Fox MD, Shannon BJ, Andrews JR, Raichle ME, Buckner RL: Coherent spontaneous activity identifies a hippocampal-parietal memory network.

J Neurophysiol 2006, 96:3517-3531. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

39.  Gilboa A, Winocur G, Grady CL, Hevenor SJ, Moscovitch M: Remembering our past: functional neuroanatomy of recollection of recent and very remote personal events.

Cereb Cortex 2004, 14:1214-1225. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

40.  Raichle ME, Snyder AZ: A default mode of brain function: a brief history of an evolving idea.

Neuroimage 2007, 37:1083-1090. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

41.  Greicius MD, Kiviniemi V, Tervonen O, Vainionpää V, Alahuhta S, Reiss AL, Menon V: Persistent default-mode network connectivity during light sedation.

Hum Brain Map 2008, 29:839-847. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

42.  Rombouts SA, Barkhof F, Goekoop R, Stam CJ, Scheltens P: Altered resting state networks in mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer's disease: an fMRI study.

Hum Brain Map 2005, 26:231-239. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

43.  Kennedy DP, Redcay E, Courchesne E: Failing to deactivate: resting functional abnormalities in autism.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006, 103:8275-8280. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

44.  Garrity AG, Pearlson GD, McKiernan K, Lloyd D, Kiehl KA, Calhoun VD: Aberrant "default mode" functional connectivity in schizophrenia.

Am J Psychiatry 2007, 164:450-457. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

45.  Zhou Y, Liang M, Tian L, Wang K, Hao Y, Liu H, Liu Z, Jiang T: Functional disintegration in paranoid schizophrenia using resting-state fMRI.

Schizophr Res 2007, 97:194-205. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

46.  Greicius MD, Flores BH, Menon V, Glover GH, Solvason HB, Kenna H, Reiss AL, Schatzberg AF: Resting-state functional connectivity in major depression: abnormally increased contributions from subgenual cingulate cortex and thalamus.

Biol Psychiatry 2007, 62:429-437. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

47.  Anand A, Li Y, Wang Y, Wu J, Gao S, Bukhari L, Mathews VP, Kalnin A, Lowe MJ: Activity and connectivity of brain mood regulating circuit in depression: a functional magnetic resonance study.

Biol Psychiatry 2005, 57:1079-1088. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

48.  Pomarol-Clotet E, Salvador R, Sarró S, Gomar J, Vila F, Martínez A, Guerrero A, Ortiz-Gil J, Sans-Sansa B, Capdevila A, Cebamanos JM, McKenna PJ: Failure to deactivate in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia: dysfunction of the default mode network?

Psychol Med 2008, 29:1-9. OpenURL

49.  Freud S: A difficulty in the path of psycho-analysis. 17th edition. London: Vintage; 1917. OpenURL

50.  Drevets WC: Orbitofrontal cortex function and structure in depression.

Ann NY Acad Sci 2007, 1121:499-527. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

51.  Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Voon V, McNeely HE, Seminowicz D, Hamani C, Schwalb JM, Kennedy SH: Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression.

Neuron 2005, 45:651-660. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

52.  Dougherty DD, Shin LM, Rauch SL: Orbitofrontal cortex activation during functional neuroimaging studies of emotion induction in humans. In The orbitofrontal cortex. Edited by: Zald DH, Rauch SL. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2006. OpenURL

53.  Meyer-Lindenberg AS, Olsen RK, Kohn PD, Brown T, Egan MF, Weinberger DR, Berman KF: Regionally specific disturbance of dorsolateral prefrontal-hippocampal functional connectivity in schizophrenia.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62:379-386. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

54.  Margulies DS, Kelly AM, Uddin LQ, Biswal BB, Castellanos FX, Milham MP: Mapping the functional connectivity of anterior cingulate cortex.

Neuroimage 2007, 37:579-588. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

55.  Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Mahurin RK, Jerabek PA, Brickman JS, Tekell JL, Silva JA, McGinnis S, Glass TG, Martin CC, Fox PT: Cingulate function in depression: a potential predictor of treatment response.

Neuroreport 1997, 8:1057-1061. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

56.  Mayberg HS, Liotti M, Brannan SK, McGinnis S, Mahurin RK, Jerabek PA, Silva JA, Tekell JL, Martin CC, Lancaster JL, Fox PT: Reciprocal limbic-cortical function and negative mood: converging PET findings in depression and normal sadness.

Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:675-682. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

57.  Mayberg HS: Modulating dysfunctional limbic-cortical circuits in depression: towards development of brain-based algorithms for diagnosis and optimised treatment.

Br Med Bull 2003, 65:193-207. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

58.  Seminowicz DA, Mayberg HS, McIntosh AR, Goldapple K, Kennedy S, Segal Z, Rafi-Tari S: Limbic-frontal circuitry in major depression: a path modeling metanalysis.

Neuroimage 2004, 22:409-18. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

59.  Freud S: An outline of psychoanalysis. 23rd edition. London: Vintage; 1940. OpenURL

60.  Freud S: New introductory lectures of psychoanalysis. 22nd edition. London: Vintage; 1933. OpenURL

61.  Freud S: Moses and monotheism. 23rd edition. London: Vintage; 1939. OpenURL

62.  Solms M, Turnbull O: The brain and the inner world. London: Karnac; 2002. OpenURL

 

63.  Pagnoni G, Zink CF, Montague PR, Berns GS: Activity in human ventral striatum locked to errors of reward prediction.

Nat Neurosci 2002, 5:97-98. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

64.  Holstege G, Georgiadis JR, Paans AM, Meiners LC, Graaf FH, Reinders AA: Brain activation during human male ejaculation.

J Neurosci 2003, 23:9185-9193. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

65.  Breiter HC, Gollub RL, Weisskoff RM, Kennedy DN, Makris N, Berke JD, Goodman JM, Kantor HL, Gastfriend DR, Riorden JP, Mathew RT, Rosen BR, Hyman SE: Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion.

Neuron 1997, 19:591-611. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

66.  Sell LA, Morris J, Bearn J, Frackowiak RS, Friston KJ, Dolan RJ: Activation of reward circuitry in human opiate addicts.

Eur J Neurosci 1999, 11:1042-1048. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

67.  Pappata S, Dehaene S, Poline JB, Gregoire MC, Jobert A, Delforge J, Frouin V, Bottlaender M, Dolle F, Di Giamberardino L, Syrota A: In vivo detection of striatal dopamine release during reward: a PET study with [(11)C]raclopride and a single dynamic scan approach.

Neuroimage 2002, 16:1015-1027. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

68.  Panksepp J: Affective neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998. OpenURL

 

69.  Heath RG: The role of pleasure in behavior. New York: Hoeber; 1964. OpenURL

 

70.  Hassin RR, Uleman JS, Bargh JA: The new unconscious. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2005. OpenURL

 

71.  Carhart-Harris R: Waves of the unconscious: The neurophysiology of dreamlike states and its implications for the psychodynamic model of the mind.

Neuropsychoanalysis 2007, 9:183-211. OpenURL

 

72.  Breuer J, Freud S: Studies on hysteria. Standard edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud. Volume 2. London: Vintage; 1893-1895. OpenURL

 

73.  Freud S: Analysis terminable and interminable. 23rd edition. London: Vintage; 1937. OpenURL

 

74.  Freud S: Mourning and melancholia. 14th edition. London: Vintage; 1917. OpenURL

 

75.  Freud S: Totem and taboo. 13th edition. London: Vintage; 1913. OpenURL

 

76.  Freud S: Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. 18th edition. London: Vintage; 1921. OpenURL

 

77.  Bremner JD, Innis RB, Salomon RM, Staib LH, Ng CK, Miller HL, Bronen RA, Krystal JH, Duncan J, Rich D, Price LH, Malison R, Dey H, Soufer R, Charney DS: Positron emission tomography measurement of cerebral metabolic correlates of tryptophan depletion-induced depressive relapse.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997, 54(4):364-374. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

78.  Baxter LR Jr, Schwartz JM, Phelps ME, Mazziotta JC, Guze BH, Selin CE, Gerner RH, Sumida RM: Reduction of prefrontal cortex glucose metabolism common to three types of depression.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989, 46:243-250. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

79.  Bench CJ, Friston KJ, Brown RG, Scott LC, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ: The anatomy of melancholia – focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression.

Psychol Med 1992, 22:607-615. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

80.  Biver F, Goldman S, Delvenne V, Luxen A, De Maertelaer V, Hubain P, Mendlewicz J, Lotstra F: Frontal and parietal metabolic disturbances in unipolar depression.

Biol Psychiatry 1994, 36:381-388. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

81.  Cohen RM, Gross M, Nordahl TE, Semple WE, Oren DA, Rosenthal N: Preliminary data on the metabolic brain pattern of patients with winter seasonal affective disorder.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992, 49:545-552. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

82.  Mayberg HS, Lewis PJ, Regenold W, Wagner HN Jr: Paralimbic hypoperfusion in unipolar depression.

J Nucl Med 1994, 35(6):929-934. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

83.  Ebert D, Feistel H, Barocka A: Effects of sleep deprivation on the limbic system and the frontal lobes in affective disorders: a study with Tc-99m-HMPAO SPECT.

Psychiatry Res 1991, 40:247-251. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

84.  Ring HA, Bench CJ, Trimble MR, Brooks DJ, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ: Depression in Parkinson's disease. A positron emissionstudy.

Br J Psychiatry 1994, 165:333-339. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

85.  Drevets WC, Ongür D, Price JL: Reduced glucose metabolism in the subgenual prefrontal cortex in unipolar depression.

Mol Psychiatry 1998, 3:190-191. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

86.  Dougherty DD, Rauch SL: Brain correlates of antidepressant treatment outcome from neuroimaging studies in depression.

Psychiatr Clin North Am 2007, 30:91-103. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

87.  Drevets WC, Videen TO, Price JL, Preskorn SH, Carmichael ST, Raichle ME: A functional anatomical study of unipolar depression.

J Neurosci 1992, 12:3628-3641. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

88.  Yazici KM, Kapucu O, Erbas B, Varoglu E, Gülec C, Bekdik CF: Assessment of changes in regional cerebral blood flow in patients with major depression using the 99mTc-HMPAO single photon emission tomography method.

Eur J Nucl Med 1992, 19(12):1038-1043. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

89.  Andreason PJ, Altemus M, Zametkin AJ, King AC, Lucinio J, Cohen RM: Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in bulimia nervosa.

Am J Psychiatry 1992, 149:1506-1513. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

90.  Hirono N, Mori E, Ishii K, Ikejiri Y, Imamura T, Shimomura T, Hashimoto M, Yamashita H, Sasaki M: Frontal lobe hypometabolism and depression in Alzheimer's disease.

Neurology 1998, 50:380-383. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

91.  Mayberg HS, Starkstein SE, Sadzot B, Preziosi T, Andrezejewski PL, Dannals RF, Wagner HN Jr, Robinson RG: Selective hypometabolism in the inferior frontal lobe in depressed patients with Parkinson's disease.

Ann Neurol 1990, 28:57-64. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

92.  Volkow ND, Hitzemann R, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Wolf AP, Dewey SL, Handlesman L: Long-term frontal brain metabolic changes in cocaine abusers.

Synapse 1992, 11:184-190. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

93.  Bonne O, Krausz Y, Shapira B, Bocher M, Karger H, Gorfine M, Chisin R, Lerer B: Increased cerebral blood flow in depressed patients responding to electroconvulsive therapy.

J Nucl Med 1996, 37(7):1075-1080. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

94.  Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Ng CK, Vermetten E, Nazeer A, Oren DA, Berman RM, Charney DS: Regional brain metabolic correlates of alpha-methylparatyrosine-induced depressive symptoms: implications for the neural circuitry of depression.

JAMA 2003, 289:3125-34. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

95.  Liotti M, Mayberg HS, McGinnis S, Brannan SL, Jerabek P: Unmasking disease-specific cerebral blood flow abnormalities: mood challenge in patients with remitted unipolar depression.

Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:1830-1840. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

96.  Drevets WC: Functional neuroimaging studies of depression: the anatomy of melancholia.

Ann Rev Med 1998, 49:341-361. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

97.  Drevets WC, Raichle ME: Neuroanatomical circuits in depression: implications for treatment mechanisms.

Psychopharmacol Bull 1992, 28:261-274. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

98.  Goodwin GM, Austin MP, Dougall N, Ross M, Murray C, O'Carroll RE, Moffoot A, Prentice N, Ebmeier KP: State changes in brain activity shown by the uptake of 99mTc-exametazime with single photon emission tomography in major depression before and after treatment.

J Affect Disord 1993, 29:243-253. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

99.  Martinot JL, Hardy P, Feline A, Huret JD, Mazoyer B, Attar-Levy D, Pappata S, Syrota A: Left prefrontal glucose hypometabolism in the depressed state: a confirmation.

Am J Psychiatry 1990, 147:1313-1317. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

100.                  Nobler MS, Sackeim HA, Prohovnik I, Moeller JR, Mukherjee S, Schnur DB, Prudic J, Devanand DP: Regional cerebral blood flow in mood disorders, III. Treatment and clinical response.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994, 51:884-897. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

101.                  Rubin P, Hemmingsen R, Holm S, Møller-Madsen S, Hertel C, Povlsen UJ, Karle A: Relationship between brain structure and function in disorders of the schizophrenic spectrum: single positron emission computerized tomography, computerized tomography and psychopathology of first episodes.

Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994, 90:281-289. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

102.                  Trivedi MH, Morris DW, Grannemann BD, Mahadi S: Symptom clusters as predictors of late response to antidepressant treatment.

J Clin Psychiatry 1994, 66(8):1064-1070. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

103.                  Mayberg HS: Limbic-cortical dysregulation: a proposed model of depression.

J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997, 9(3):471-481. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

104.                  Ogura A, Morinobu S, Kawakatsu S, Totsuka S, Komatani A: Changes in regional brain activity in major depression after successful treatment with antidepressant drugs.

Acta Psychiatr Scand 1998, 98:54-59. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

105.                  Kennedy SH, Evans KR, Krüger S, Mayberg HS, Meyer JH, McCann S, Arifuzzman AI, Houle S, Vaccarino FJ: Changes in regional brain glucose metabolism measured with positron emission tomography after paroxetine treatment of major depression.

Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158:899-905. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

106.                  Keedwell PA, Andrew C, Williams SC, Brammer MJ, Phillips ML: The neural correlates of anhedonia in major depressive disorder.

Biol Psychiatry 2005, 58:843-853. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

107.                  Baker SC, Frith CD, Dolan RJ: The interaction between mood and cognitive function studied with PET.

Psychol Med 1997, 3:565-578. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

108.                  George MS, Ketter TA, Parekh PI, Horwitz B, Herscovitch P, Post RM: Brain activity during transient sadness and happiness in healthy women.

Am J Psychiatry 1995, 152:341-351. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

109.                  Bench CJ, Friston KJ, Brown RG, Frackowiak RS, Dolan RJ: Regional cerebral blood flow in depression measured by positron emission tomography: the relationship with clinical dimensions.

Psychol Med 1993, 23(3):579-590. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

110.                  Pardo JV, Sheikh SA, Schwindt GC, Lee JT, Kuskowski MA, Surerus C, Lewis SM, Abuzzahab FS, Adson DE, Rittberg BR: Chronic vagus nerve stimulation for treatment-resistant depression decreases resting ventromedial prefrontal glucose metabolism.

Neuroimage 2008.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

111.                  Drevets WC, Price JL, Bardgett ME, Reich T, Todd RD, Raichle ME: Glucose metabolism in the amygdala in depression: relationship to diagnostic subtype and plasma cortisol levels.

Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2002, 71:431-447. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

112.                  Videbech P, Ravnkilde B: Hippocampal volume and depression: a meta-analysis of MRI studies.

Am J Psychiatry 2004, 161:1957-1966. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

113.                  Dougherty DD, Weiss AP, Cosgrove GR, Alpert NM, Cassem EH, Nierenberg AA, Price BH, Mayberg HS, Fischman AJ, Rauch SL: Cerebral metabolic correlates as potential predictors of response to anterior cingulotomy for treatment of major depression.

J Neurosurg 2003, 99:1010-1017. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

114.                  Nofzinger EA, Buysse DJ, Germain A, Price JC, Meltzer CC, Miewald JM, Kupfer DJ: Alterations in regional cerebral glucose metabolism across waking and non-rapid eye movement sleep in depression.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62:387-396. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

115.                  Osuch EA, Ketter TA, Kimbrell TA, George MS, Benson BE, Willis MW, Herscovitch P, Post RM: Regional cerebral metabolism associated with anxiety symptoms in affective disorder patients.

Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:1020-1023. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

116.                  Liotti M, Martin CC, Gao JH, Roby JW, Mayberg HS, Zamarripa F, Jerabek PA, Fox PT: Xenon effects on regional cerebral blood flow assessed by 15O-H2O positron emission tomography: implications for hyperpolarized xenon MRI.

J Mag Res Imag 1997, 7:761-764. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

117.                  Wu J, Buchsbaum MS, Gillin JC, Tang C, Cadwell S, Wiegand M, Najafi A, Klein E, Hazen K, Bunney WE Jr, Fallon JH, Keator D: Prediction of antidepressant effects of sleep deprivation by metabolic rates in the ventral anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex.

Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1149-1158. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

118.                  Mayberg HS, Brannan SK, Tekell JL, Silva JA, Mahurin RK, McGinnis S, Jerabek PA: Regional metabolic effects of fluoxetine in major depression: serial changes and relationship to clinical response.

Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:830-843. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

119.                  Mayberg HS, Silva JA, Brannan SK, Tekell JL, Mahurin RK, McGinnis S, Jerabek PA: The functional neuroanatomy of the placebo effect.

Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:728-737. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

120.                  Cosgrove GR, Rauch SL: Psychosurgery.

Neurosurg Clin N Am 1995, 6(1):167-176. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

121.                  Deakin JF, Lees J, McKie S, Hallak JE, Williams SR, Dursun SM: Glutamate and the neural basis of the subjective effects of ketamine: a pharmaco-magnetic resonance imaging study.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008, 65:154-164. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

122.                  Krupitsky EM, Grinenko AY: Ketamine psychedelic therapy (KPT): a review of the results of ten years of research.

J Psychoactive Drugs 1997, 29:165-183. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

123.                  Berman RM, Cappiello A, Anand A, Oren DA, Heninger GR, Charney DS, Krystal JH: Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients.

Biol Psychiatry 2000, 47:351-354. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

124.                  Ostroff R, Gonzales M, Sanacora G: Antidepressant effect of ketamine during ECT.

Am J Psychiatry 2005, 162:1385-1386. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

125.                  Zarate CA Jr, Singh JB, Carlson PJ, Brutsche NE, Ameli R, Luckenbaugh DA, Charney DS, Manji HK: A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006, 63:856-864. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

126.                  Liebrenz M, Borgeat A, Leisinger R, Stohler R: Intravenous ketamine therapy in a patient with a treatment-resistant major depression.

Swiss Med Week 2007, 137:234-236. OpenURL

 

127.                  Beauregard M, Lévesque J, Bourgouin P: Neural correlates of conscious self-regulation of emotion.

J Neurosci 2001, 21:RC165. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

128.                  Schiffer B, Paul T, Gizewski E, Forsting M, Leygraf N, Schedlowski M, Kruger TH: Functional brain correlates of heterosexual paedophilia.

Neuroimage 2008, 41:80-91. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

129.                  Finger EC, Marsh AA, Kamel N, Mitchell DG, Blair JR: Caught in the act: the impact of audience on the neural response to morally and socially inappropriate behavior.

Neuroimage 2006, 33:414-421. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

130.                  Shin LM, Dougherty DD, Orr SP, Pitman RK, Lasko M, Macklin ML, Alpert NM, Fischman AJ, Rauch SL: Activation of anterior paralimbic structures during guilt-related script-driven imagery.

Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:43-50. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

131.                  Dougherty DD, Rauch SL, Deckersbach T, Marci C, Loh R, Shin LM, Alpert NM, Fischman AJ, Fava M: Ventromedial prefrontal cortex and amygdala dysfunction during an anger induction positron emission tomography study in patients with major depressive disorder with anger attacks.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004, 61:795-804. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

132.                  Raine A, Meloy JR, Bihrle S, Stoddard J, LaCasse L, Buchsbaum MS: Reduced prefrontal and increased subcortical brain functioning assessed using positron emission tomography in predatory and affective murderers.

Behav Sci Law 1998, 16:319-332. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

133.                  Goyer PF, Andreason PJ, Semple WE, Clayton AH, King AC, Compton-Toth BA, Schulz SC, Cohen RM: Positron-emission tomography and personality disorders.

Neuropsychopharmacology 1994, 10:21-28. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

134.                  Grafman J, Schwab K, Warden D, Pridgen A, Brown HR, Salazar AM: Frontal lobe injuries, violence, and aggression: a report of the Vietnam Head Injury Study.

Neurology 1996, 46:1231-1238. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

135.                  Anderson SW, Bechara A, Damasio H, Tranel D, Damasio AR: Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage in human prefrontal cortex.

Nat Neurosci 1999, 2:1032-1037. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

136.                  Eslinger PJ, Grattan LM: Altered serial position learning after frontal lobe lesion.

Neuropsychologia 1994, 32:729-739. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

137.                  Pietrini P, Guazzelli M, Basso G, Jaffe K, Graffman J: Neural correlates of imaginal aggressive behaviour assessed by positron emission tomography in healthy subjects.

Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:1772-1781. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

138.                  Britton JC, Phan KL, Taylor SF, Fig LM, Liberzon I: Corticolimbic blood flow in posttraumatic stress disorder during script-driven imagery.

Biol Psychiatry 2005, 57:832-840. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

139.                  Frewen P, Lane RD, Neufeld RW, Densmore M, Stevens T, Lanius R: Neural correlates of levels of emotional awareness during trauma script-imagery in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Psychosom Med 2007, 70:27-31. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

140.                  Terzian H, Ore GD: Syndrome of Kluver and Bucy. Reproduced in man by bilateral removal of the temporal lobes.

Neurology 1955, 5:373-380. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

141.                  Gloor P: Experiential phenomena of temporal lobe epilepsy.

Brain 1990, 113:1673-1694. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

142.                  Kawasaki H, Kaufman O, Damasio H, Damasio AR, Granner M, Bakken H, Hori T, Howard MA 3rd, Adolphs R: Single-neuron responses to emotional visual stimuli recorded in human ventral prefrontal cortex.

Nat Neurosci 2001, 4:15-16. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

143.                  Krolak-Salmon P, Hénaff MA, Vighetto A, Bertrand O, Mauguière F: Early amygdala reaction to fear spreading in occipital, temporal, and frontal cortex: a depth electrode ERP study in humans.

Neuron 2004, 42:665-676. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

144.                  Streit M, Ioannides AA, Liu L, Wölwer W, Dammers J, Gross J, Gaebel W, Müller-Gärtner HW: Neurophysiological correlates of the recognition of facial expressions of emotion as revealed by magnetoencephalography.

Brain Res Cogn Brain Res 1999, 7:481-491. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

145.                  Streit M, Ioannides A, Sinnemann T, Wölwer W, Dammers J, Zilles K, Gaebel W: Disturbed facial affect recognition in patients with schizophrenia associated with hypoactivity in distributed brain regions: a magnetoencephalographic study.

Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158:1429-1436. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

146.                  Garcia R, Vouimba RM, Baudry M, Thompson RF: The amygdala modulates prefrontal cortex activity relative to conditioned fear.

Nature 1999, 402:294-296. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

147.                  Hariri AR, Bookheimer SY, Mazziotta JC: Modulating emotional responses: effects of a neocortical network on the limbic system.

Neuroreport 2000, 11:43-48. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

148.                  Milad MR, Quirk GJ: Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction.

Nature 2002, 420:70-74. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

149.                  Morgan MA, Romanski LM, LeDoux JE: Extinction of emotional learning: contribution of medial prefrontal cortex.

Neurosci Lett 1993, 163:109-113. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

150.                  Morgan MA, LeDoux JE: Differential contribution of dorsal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex to the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear in rats.

Behav Neurosci 1995, 109:681-688. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

151.                  LeDoux JE: The emotional brain. New York: Simon & Schuster; 1996. OpenURL

 

152.                  LeDoux JE: Emotion circuits in the brain.

Ann Rev Neurosci 2000, 23:155-184. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

153.                  Quirk GJ, Russo GK, Barron JL, Lebron K: The role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the recovery of extinguished fear.

J Neurosci 2000, 20:6225-6231. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

154.                  LeDoux JE, Gorman JM: A call to action: overcoming anxiety through active coping.

Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158:1953-1955. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

155.                  Garcia R: Postextinction of conditioned fear: between two CS-related memories.

Learn Mem 2002, 9:361-363. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

156.                  Grace AA, Rosenkranz JA: Regulation of conditioned responses of basolateral amygdala neurons.

Physiol Behav 2002, 77:489-493. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

157.                  Herry C, Garcia R: Prefrontal cortex long-term potentiation, but not long-term depression, is associated with the maintenance of extinction of learned fear in mice.

J Neurosci 2002, 22:577-583. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

158.                  Harrison BJ, Pujol J, Ortiz H, Fornito A, Pantelis C, Yücel M: Modulation of brain resting-state networks by sad mood induction.

PLoS ONE 2008, 3:e1794. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

 

159.                  Myers KM, Davis M: Behavioral and neural analysis of extinction.

Neuron 2002, 36:567-584. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

160.                  Paré D, Quirk GJ, Ledoux JE: New vistas on amygdala networks in conditioned fear.

J Neurophysiol 2004, 92:1-9. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

161.                  Siegle GJ, Steinhauer SR, Thase ME, Stenger VA, Carter CS: Can't shake that feeling: event-related fMRI assessment of sustained amygdala activity in response to emotional information in depressed individuals.

Biol Psychiatry 2002, 51:693-707. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

162.                  Drevets WC, Burton H, Videen TO, Snyder AZ, Simpson JR Jr, Raichle ME: Blood flow changes in human somatosensory cortex during anticipated stimulation.

Nature 1995, 373:249-252. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

163.                  Drevets WC, Price JL, Simpson JR Jr, Todd RD, Reich T, Vannier M, Raichle ME: Subgenual prefrontal cortex abnormalities in mood disorders.

Nature 1997, 386:824-827. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

164.                  Wu JC, Gillin JC, Buchsbaum MS, Hershey T, Johnson JC, Bunney WE Jr: Effect of sleep deprivation on brain metabolism of depressed patients.

Am J Psychiatry 1992, 149:538-543. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

165.                  Mentis MJ, Pietrini P, Polles A: Cerebral glucose metabolism in late onset depression without cognitive impairment.

Neurosci 1995, 21:1736. OpenURL

 

166.                  Abercrombie HC, Larson CL, Ward TL: Metabolic rate in the amygdala predicts negative affect and depression severity in depressed patients: an FDG-PET study.

Neuroimage 1996, 3:S217. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

167.                  Nofzinger EA, Nichols TE, Meltzer CC, Price J, Steppe DA, Miewald JM, Kupfer DJ, Moore RY: Changes in forebrain function from waking to REM sleep in depression: preliminary analyses of [18F]FDG PET studies.

Psychiatry Res 1999, 91:59-78. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

168.                  Ketter TA, Kimbrell TA, George MS, Dunn RT, Speer AM, Benson BE, Willis MW, Danielson A, Frye MA, Herscovitch P, Post RM: Effects of mood and subtype on cerebral glucose metabolism in treatment-resistant bipolar disorder.

Biol Psychiatry 2001, 49:97-109. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

169.                  Ketter TA, Wang PW: Predictors of treatment response in bipolar disorders: evidence from clinical and brain imaging studies.

J Clin Psychiatry 2002, 63(Suppl 3):21-25. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

170.                  Schneider F, Gur RE, Mozley LH, Smith RJ, Mozley PD, Censits DM, Alavi A, Gur RC: Mood effects on limbic blood flow correlate with emotional self-rating: a PET study with oxygen-15 labeled water.

Psychiatry Res 1995, 61:265-283. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

171.                  Schneider F, Grodd W, Weiss U, Klose U, Mayer KR, Nägele T, Gur RC: Functional MRI reveals left amygdala activation during emotion.

Psychiatry Res 1997, 76:75-82. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

172.                  Sheline YI, Barch DM, Donnelly JM, Ollinger JM, Snyder AZ, Mintun MA: Increased amygdala response to masked emotional faces in depressed subjects resolves with antidepressant treatment: an fMRI study.

Biol Psychiatry 2001, 50:651-658. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

173.                  Fu CH, Williams SC, Cleare AJ, Brammer MJ, Walsh ND, Kim J, Andrew CM, Pich EM, Williams PM, Reed LJ, Mitterschiffthaler MT, Suckling J, Bullmore ET: Attenuation of the neural response to sad faces in major depression by antidepressant treatment: a prospective, event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging study.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004, 61:877-889. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

174.                  Delgado JR, Hamlin H, Higgins JW, Mahl GF: Behavioral changes during intracerebral electrical stimulation.

AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1956, 76:399-419. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

175.                  Bickford RG, Mulder DW, Dodge HW Jr, Svien HJ, Rome HP: Changes in memory function produced by electrical stimulation of the temporal lobe in man.

Res Pub Assoc Res Nerv Mental Dis 1958, 36:227-40. OpenURL

 

176.                  Baldwin M: Electrical stimulation of the mesial temporal region. In Electrical studies on the unanesthetized brain. Edited by: Ramey ER, Doherty DS. New York: Hoeber; 1960:159-176. OpenURL

 

177.                  Penfield W, Perrot P: The brain's record of auditory and visual experience.

Brain 1963, 86:595-696. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

178.                  Horowitz MJ, Adams JE, Rutkin BB: Visual imagery on brain stimulation.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1968, 19:469-486. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

179.                  Ferguson SM, Rayport M, Gardner R, Kass W, Weiner H, Reiser MF: Similarities in mental content of psychotic states, spontaneous seizures, dreams, and responses to electrical brain stimulation in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy.

Psychosom Med 1969, 31:479-498. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

180.                  Halgren E, Walter RD, Cherlow DG, Crandall PH: Mental phenomena evoked by electrical stimulation of the human hippocampus formation and amygdala.

Brain 1978, 101:83-117. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

181.                  Wieser HG, ILAE Commission on Neurosurgery of Epilepsy: ILAE Commission Report. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy with hippocampal sclerosis.

Epilepsia 2004, 45:695-714. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

182.                  Bartolomei F, Barbeau E, Gavaret M, Guye M, McGonigal A, Regis J, Chauvel P: Cortical stimulation study of the role of rhinal cortex in deja vu and reminiscence of memories.

Neurology 2004, 63:858-864. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

183.                  Bancaud J, Brunet-Bourgin F, Chauvel P, Halgren E: Anatomical origin of déjà vu and vivid 'memories' in human temporal lobe epilepsy.

Brain 1994, 117:71-90. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

184.                  Barbeau E: Recollection of vivid memories after perirhinal region stimulations: synchronization in the theta range of spatially distributed brain areas.

Neuropsychologia 2005, 43:1329-1337. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

185.                  Vignal JP, Maillard L, McGonigal A, Chauvel P: The dreamy state: hallucinations of autobiographic memory evoked by temporal lobe stimulations and seizures.

Brain 2007, 130:88-99. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

186.                  Ostow M: Psychodynamic disturbances in patients with temporal lobe disorders.

Trans Am Neurol Assoc 1952, 56:79-83. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

187.                  Ostow M: Psychodynamic disturbances in patients with temporal lobe disorder.

J Mt Sinai Hosp N Y 1954, 20:293. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

188.                  Kubie LS: Some implications for psychoanalysis of modern concepts of the organization of the brain.

Psychoanal Q 1953, 22:21-68. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

 

189.                  Rodin EA, Mulder DW, Faucett RL, Bickford RG: Psychologic factors in convulsive disorders of focal origin.

AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry 1955, 74:440. OpenURL

 

190.                  Epstein AW, Ervin F: Psychodynamic significance of seizure content in psychomotor epilepsy.

Psychosom Med 1956, 18:43-55. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

191.                  Mahl GF, Rothenberg A, Delgado JMR, Hamlin H: Psychological responses in the human to intracerebral electrical stimulation.

Psychosom Med 1964, 26:337-368. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

192.                  Ferguson SM, Rayport M: Id, ego, and temporal lobe revisited.

Int Rev Neurobiol 2006, 76:21-31. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

193.                  Cohen S: The Beyond Within. The LSD Story. New York: Atheneum; 1964. OpenURL

 

194.                  Ongür D, An X, Price JL: Prefrontal cortical projections to the hypothalamus in macaque monkeys.

J Comp Neurol 1998, 401:480-505. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

195.                  Freedman LJ, Insel TR, Smith Y: Subcortical projections of area 25 (subgenual cortex) of the macaque monkey.

J Comp Neurol 2000, 421:172-188. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

196.                  Ongür D, An X, Price JL: Prefrontal cortical projections to the hypothalamus in macaque monkeys.

J Comp Neurol 2000, 401:480-505. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

197.                  Kondo H, Saleem KS, Price JL: Differential connections of the perirhinal and parahippocampal cortex with the orbital and medial prefrontal networks in macaque monkeys.

J Comp Neurol 2005, 493:479-509. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

198.                  Johansen-Berg H, Gutman DA, Behrens TE, Matthews PM, Rushworth MF, Katz E, Lozano AM, Mayberg HS: Anatomical connectivity of the subgenual cingulate region targeted with deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression.

Cereb Cortex 2008, 18:1374-1383. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

199.                  Lehéricy S, Ducros M, Moortele PF, Francois C, Thivard L, Poupon C, Swindale N, Ugurbil K, Kim DS: Diffusion tensor fiber tracking shows distinct corticostriatal circuits in humans.

Ann Neurol 2004, 55:522-9. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

200.                  Palomero-Gallagher N, Mohlberg H, Zilles K, Vogt B: Cytology and receptor architecture of human anterior cingulate cortex.

J Comp Neurol 2008, 508:906-926. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

201.                  Pezawas L, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Drabant EM, Verchinski BA, Munoz KE, Kolachana BS, Egan MF, Mattay VS, Hariri AR, Weinberger DR: 5-HTTLPR polymorphism impacts human cingulate-amygdala interactions: a genetic susceptibility mechanism for depression.

Nat Neurosci 2005, 8:828-834. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

202.                  Haas BW, Omura K, Constable RT, Canli T: Emotional conflict and neuroticism: personality-dependent activation in the amygdala and subgenual anterior cingulate.

Behav Neurosci 2007, 121:249-256. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

203.                  Mogenson GJ, Swanson LW, Wu M: Neural projections from nucleus accumbens to globus pallidus, substantia innominata, and lateral preoptic-lateral hypothalamic area: an anatomical and electrophysiological investigation in the rat.

J Neurosci 1983, 3:189-202. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

204.                  Di Martino A, Scheres A, Margulies DS, Kelly AM, Uddin LQ, Shehzad Z, Biswal B, Walters JR, Castellanos FX, Milham MP: Functional connectivity of human striatum: a resting state fMRI study.

Cereb Cortex 2008. OpenURL

 

205.                  Leichnetz GR, Astruc J: The efferent projections of the medial prefrontal cortex in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus).

Brain Res 1976, 109:455-472. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

206.                  Heath RG: Electrical stimulation of the brain in man.

Am J Psychiatry 1963, 120:571-577. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

207.                  Heath RG: Pleasure and brain activity in man. Deep and surface electroencephalograms during orgasm.

J Nerv Mental Dis 1972, 154:3-18. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

208.                  Schlaepfer TE, Cohen MX, Frick C, Kosel M, Brodesser D, Axmacher N, Joe AY, Kreft M, Lenartz D, Sturm V: Deep brain stimulation to reward circuitry alleviates anhedonia in refractory major depression.

Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33:368-377. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

209.                  Uranova NA, Zimina IS, Vikhreva OV, Denisov DV, Orlovskaya DD: Morphometric study of ultrastructural alterations of myelinated fibres in post-mortem schizophrenia brains.

Schizophr Res 1999, 36:85. OpenURL

Return to text

210.                  Johnston-Wilson NL, Sims CD, Hofmann JP, Anderson L, Shore AD, Torrey EF, Yolken RH: Disease-specific alterations in frontal cortex brain proteins in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder. The Stanley Neuropathology Consortium.

Mol Psychiatry 2000, 5:142-149. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

211.                  Rajkowska G: Postmortem studies in mood disorders indicate altered numbers of neurons and glial cells.

Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:766-777. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

212.                  Rajkowska G, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ, Wei J, Dilley G, Pittman SD, Meltzer HY, Overholser JC, Roth BL, Stockmeier CA: Morphometric evidence for neuronal and glial prefrontal cell pathology in major depression.

Biol Psychiatry 1999, 45:1085-1098. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

213.                  Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Nazeer A, Adil J, Khan S, Staib LH, Charney DS: Reduced volume of orbitofrontal cortex in major depression.

Biol Psychiatry 2002, 51:273-279. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

214.                  Cotter D, Mackay D, Chana G, Beasley C, Landau S, Everall IP: Reduced neuronal size and glial cell density in area 9 of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in subjects with major depressive disorder.

Cereb Cortex 2002, 12:386-394. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

215.                  Benes FM, Davidson J, Bird ED: Quantitative cytoarchitectural studies of the cerebral cortex of schizophrenics.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986, 43:31-35. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

216.                  Benes FM, McSparren J, Bird ED, San Giovanni JP, Vincent SL: Deficits in small interneurons in prefrontal and cingulate cortices of schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991, 48:996-1001. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

217.                  Ongür D, Drevets WC, Price JL: Glial reduction in the subgenual prefrontal cortex in mood disorders.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998, 95:13290-13295. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

218.                  Orlovskaya DD, Vostrikov VM, Rachmanova VI, Uranova NA: Decreased numerical density of oligodendroglial density cells in the prefrontal cortex area 9 in schizophrenia and mood disorders: a study of brain collection from the Stanley Foundation Neuropathology Consortium.

Schizophr Res 2000, 41:105-106. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

219.                  Cotter D, Mackay D, Landau S, Kerwin R, Everall I: Reduced glial cell density and neuronal size in the anterior cingulate cortex in major depressive disorder.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001, 58:545-553. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

220.                  Hirayasu Y, Shenton ME, Salisbury DF, Kwon JS, Wible CG, Fischer IA, Yurgelun-Todd D, Zarate C, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, McCarley RW: Subgenual cingulate cortex volume in first-episode psychosis.

Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:1091-1093. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

221.                  Botteron KN, Raichle ME, Drevets WC, Heath AC, Todd RD: Volumetric reduction in left subgenual prefrontal cortex in early onset depression.

Biol Psychiatry 2002, 51:342-344. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

222.                  MacQueen GM, Campbell S, McEwen BS, Macdonald K, Amano S, Joffe RT, Nahmias C, Young LT: Course of illness, hippocampal function, and hippocampal volume in major depression.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100:1387-13892. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

223.                  Sheline YI, Wang PW, Gado MH, Csernansky JG, Vannier MW: Hippocampal atrophy in recurrent major depression.

Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1996, 93:3908-3913. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | PubMed Central Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

224.                  Sheline YI, Sanghavi M, Mintun MA, Gado MH: Depression duration but not age predicts hippocampal volume loss in medically healthy women with recurrent major depression.

J Neurosci 1999, 19:5034-5043. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

225.                  Bell-McGinty S, Butters MA, Meltzer CC, Greer PJ, Reynolds CF 3rd, Becker JT: Brain morphometric abnormalities in geriatric depression: long-term neurobiological effects of illness duration.

Am J Psychiatry 2002, 8:1424-1427. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

226.                  Steffens DC, Byrum CE, McQuoid DR, Greenberg DL, Payne ME, Blitchington TF, MacFall JR, Krishnan KR: Hippocampal volume in geriatric depression.

Biol Psychiatry 2003, 48:301-309. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

227.                  Mervaala E, Föhr J, Könönen M, Valkonen-Korhonen M, Vainio P, Partanen K, Partanen J, Tiihonen J, Viinamäki H, Karjalainen AK, Lehtonen J: Quantitative MRI of the hippocampus and amygdala in severe depression.

Psychol Med 2000, 30:117-125. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

228.                  Bremner JD, Narayan M, Anderson ER, Staib LH, Miller HL, Charney DS: Hippocampal volume reduction in major depression.

Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157(1):115-118. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

229.                  Shah PJ, Ebmeier KP, Glabus MF, Goodwin GM: Cortical grey matter reductions associated with treatment-resistant chronic unipolar depression. Controlled magnetic resonance imaging study.

Br J Psychiatry 1998, 172:527-532. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

230.                  Pearlson GD, Barta PE, Powers RE, Menon RR, Richards SS, Aylward EH, Federman EB, Chase GA, Petty RG, Tien AY: Medial and superior temporal gyral volumes and cerebral asymmetry in schizophrenia versus bipolar disorder.

Biol Psychiatry 1997, 41:1-14. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

231.                  Bowley MP, Drevets WC, Ongür D, Price JL: Low glial numbers in the amygdala in major depressive disorder.

Biol Psychiatry 2002, 52:404-412. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

232.                  Frodl T, Meisenzahl EM, Zetzsche T, Born C, Groll C, Jäger M, Leinsinger G, Bottlender R, Hahn K, Möller HJ: Hippocampal changes in patients with a first episode of major depression.

Am J Psychiatry 2002, 159:1112-1118. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

233.                  Baumann B, Danos P, Krell D, Diekmann S, Leschinger A, Stauch R, Wurthmann C, Bernstein HG, Bogerts B: Reduced volume of limbic system-affiliated basal ganglia in mood disorders: preliminary data from a postmortem study.

J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999, 11:71-78. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

234.                  Krishnan KR, McDonald WM, Escalona PR, Doraiswamy PM, Na C, Husain MM, Figiel GS, Boyko OB, Ellinwood EH, Nemeroff CB: Magnetic resonance imaging of the caudate nuclei in depression. Preliminary observations.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992, 49(7):553-7. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

235.                  Sapolsky RM: Glucocorticoids and hippocampal atrophy in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000, 57:925-935. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

236.                  Nemeroff CB: The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: new findings and new directions.

Mol Psychiatry 1996, 1:336-342. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

237.                  Drevets WC: Neuroimaging abnormalities in the amygdala in mood disorders.

Ann NY Acad Sci 2003, 985:420-444. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

238.                  Rubin RT, Mandell AJ, Crandall PH: Corticosteroid responses to limbic stimulation in man: localization of stimulus sites.

Science 1966, 153:767-768. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

239.                  Sheline YI: Neuroimaging studies of mood disorder effects on the brain.

Biol Psychiatry 2003, 54:338-352. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

240.                  Finch DM: Hippocampal, subicular, and entorhinal afferents and synaptic integration in rodent cingulate cortex. In Neurobiology of cingulate cortex and the limbic thalamus: a comprehensive handbook. Edited by: Vogt BA, Gabriel M. Boston: Birkhauser; 1993. OpenURL

Return to text

241.                  Falkai P, Bogerts B: Cell loss in the hippocampus of schizophrenics.

Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci 1986, 236:154-161. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

242.                  Falkai P, Bogerts B, Rozumek M: Limbic pathology in schizophrenia: the entorhinal region – a morphometric study.

Biol Psychiatry 1988, 24:515-521. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

243.                  Bogerts B, Häntsch J, Herzer M: A morphometric study of the dopamine-containing cell groups in the mesencephalon of normals, Parkinson patients, and schizophrenics.

Biol Psychiatry 1983, 18:951-969. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

Return to text

244.                  Radewicz K, Garey LJ, Gentleman SM, Reynolds R: Increase in HLA-DR immunoreactive microglia in frontal and temporal cortex of chronic schizophrenics.

J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2000, 59:137-150. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

Return to text

245.                  Orlovskaya DD, Vikhreva OV, Zimina IS, Denisov DV, Uranova NA: Ultrastructural dystrophic changes of oligodendroglial cells in autopsied prefrontal cortex and striatum in schizophrenia: a morphometric study.

Schizophr Res 1999, 36:82-83. OpenURL

246.                  Webster MJ, Johnston-Wilson N, Nagata K, Yolken RH: Alterations in the expression of phosphorylated glial fibrillary acidic proteins in the frontal cortex of individuals with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and depression.

Schizophr Res 2000, 41:106. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

247.                  Honer WG, Falkai P, Chen C, Arango V, Mann JJ, Dwork AJ: Synaptic and plasticity-associated proteins in anterior frontal cortex in severe mental illness.

Neurosci 1999, 91:1247-1255. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

248.                  Owen F, Crow TJ, Frith CD, Johnson JA, Johnstone EC, Lofthouse R, Owens DG, Poulter M: Selective decreases in MAO-B activity in post-mortem brains from schizophrenic patients with type II syndrome.

Br J Psychiatry 1987, 151:514-519. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

249.                  Rubin E, Sackeim HA, Prohovnik I, Moeller JR, Schnur DB, Mukherjee S: Regional cerebral blood flow in mood disorders: IV. Comparison of mania and depression.

Psychiatry Res 1995, 61:1-10. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

250.                  Blumberg HP, Stern E, Martinez D, Ricketts S, de Asis J, White T, Epstein J, McBride PA, Eidelberg D, Kocsis JH, Silbersweig DA: Increased anterior cingulate and caudate activity in bipolar mania.

Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:1045-1052. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

251.                  Goodwin GM, Cavanagh JT, Glabus MF, Kehoe RF, O'Carroll RE, Ebmeier KP: Uptake of 99mTc-exametazime shown by single photon emission computed tomography before and after lithium withdrawal in bipolar patients: associations with mania.

Br J Psychiatry 1997, 170:426-430. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

252.                  Freud S: Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety. 20th edition. London: Vintage; 1926. OpenURL

253.                  Neimat JS, Hamani C, Giacobbe P, Merskey H, Kennedy SH, Mayberg HS, Lozano AM: Neural stimulation successfully treats depression in patients with prior ablative cingulotomy.

Am J Psychiatry 2008, 165:687-693. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

254.                  McNeely HE, Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Kennedy SH: Neuropsychological impact of Cg25 deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: preliminary results over 12 months.

J Nerv Mental Dis 2008, 196:405-410. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

255.                  Eslinger PJ, Damasio AR: Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: patient EVR.

Neurology 1985, 35:1731-1741. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

256.                  Cummings JL: Clinical neuropsychiatry. New York: Grune and Stratton; 1985. OpenURL

257.                  Beer JS, Heerey EA, Keltner D, Scabini D, Knight RT: The regulatory function of self-conscious emotion: insights from patients with orbitofrontal damage.

J Personal Soc Psychol 2003, 85:594-604. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

258.                  Moretti L, Dragone D, di Pellegrino G: Reward and social valuation deficits following ventromedial prefrontal damage.

J Cogn Neurosci 2008.PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

259.                  Seeley WW, Menon V, Schatzberg AF, Keller J, Glover GH, Kenna H, Reiss AL, Greicius MD: Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control.

J Neurosci 2007, 27:2349-2356. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

260.                  Goethe JWV: Faust. The first part of the tragedy. Hertfordshire, UK: Wordsworth Editions Ltd; 1808. OpenURL

261.                  Albus JS, Bekey GA, Holland JH, Kanwisher NG, Krichmar JL, Mishkin M, Modha DS, Raichle ME, Shepherd GM, Tononi GA: Proposal for a Decade of the Mind initiative.

Science 2007, 317:1321. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

262.                  Sacks O: A leg to stand on. London: Duckworth; 1984. OpenURL

263.                  Kandel ER: Biology and the future of psychoanalysis: a new intellectual framework for psychiatry revisited.

Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:505-524. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

264.                  Hering E: Uber das Gedachtnis al seine allgemaine Function der organisirten Materie. Vienna: Imperial Academy of Sciences; 1870. OpenURL

265.                  Freud S: An autobiographical study. 20th edition. London: Vintage; 1925. OpenURL

266.                  Abramson HA: The second international conference on the use of LSD in psychotherapy. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company; 1967. OpenURL

267.                  Martin AJ: The treatment of twelve male homosexuals with LSD.

Acta Psychother 1962, 10:394-402. OpenURL

268.                  Grof S: Realms of the human unconscious. Observations from LSD research. London: Souvenir Press; 1975. OpenURL

269.                  Sandison RA: Psychological aspects of the LSD treatment of the neuroses.

J Ment Sci 1954, 100:508-515. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

270.                  Sandison RA: The contribution of LSD therapy to analytic theory and practice.

Bull Br Psychol Soc 1957, 33:24. OpenURL

271.                  Sandison RA: Certainty and uncertainty in the LSD treatment of psychoneurosis. In Hallucinogenic drugs and their psychotherapeutic use. Edited by: Crocket R, Sandison RA, Walk A. London: Lewis HK; 1963. OpenURL

272.                  Lewis DJ, Sloane RB: Therapy with lysergic acid diethylamide.

J Clin Exp Psychopathol 1958, 19:19-31. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

273.                  Cutner M: Analytic work with LSD 25.

Psychiatr Q 1959, 33:715-757. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

274.                  Rolo A, Krinsky LW, Goldfarb L: LSD as an adjunct to psychotherapy with alcoholics.

J Psychol 1960, 50:85-104. OpenURL

275.                  Ling TM: The use of LSD and ritalin in the treatment of neurosis. In The second international conference on the use of LSD in psychotherapy. Edited by: Abramson HA. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company; 1967. OpenURL

276.                  Spencer AM: Permissive group therapy with lysergic acid diethylamide.

Br J Psychiatry 1963, 109:37-45. PubMed Abstract OpenURL

277.                  Spencer AM: Modifications in the technique of LSD therapy.

Comp Psychiatry 1964, 5:232-252. Publisher Full Text OpenURL

278.                  Abramson HA: Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25): XIX. As an adjunction to brief psychotherapy with special reference to ego enhancement.

J Psychology 1956, 41:199-229. OpenURL

279.                  Abramson HA: The use of LSD in psychotherapy. New York: The Josiah Macy Jr Foundation; 1959. OpenURL

280.                  Leuner H: Present state of psycholytic therapy and its possibilities. In The second international conference on the use of LSD in psychotherapy. Edited by: Abramson HA. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company; 1967. OpenURL

281.                  Osmond H: A comment on some uses of psychotomimetics in psychiatry. In The second international conference on the use of LSD in psychotherapy. Edited by: Abramson HA. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company; 1967. OpenURL

282.                  Busch AK, Johnson WC: LSD-25 as an aid to psychotherapy.

Disease Nerv Sys 1950, 11:241. OpenURL

283.                  Grof S: The use of LSD-25 in personality diagnostics and therapy of psychogenic disorders. In The second international conference on the use of LSD in psychotherapy. Edited by: Abramson HA. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company; 1967. OpenURL

284.                  Grof S: LSD psychotherapy. Florida: MAPS; 1980. OpenURL

285.                  Eisner BG: Communication to first international congress of CNIP, Rome. In The use of LSD in psychotherapy. New York: The Josiah Macy Jr Foundation; 1959. OpenURL

286.                  Vollenweider FX, Leenders KL, Scharfetter C, Maguire P, Stadelmann O, Angst J: Positron emission tomography and fluorodeoxyglucose studies of metabolic hyperfrontality and psychopathology in the psilocybin model of psychosis.

Neuropsychopharmacology 1997, 16:357-372. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

287.                  Hermle L, Fünfgeld M, Oepen G, Botsch H, Borchardt D, Gouzoulis E, Fehrenbach RA, Spitzer M: Mescaline-induced psychopathological, neuropsychological, and neurometabolic effects in normal subjects: experimental psychosis as a tool for psychiatric research.

Biol Psychiatry 1992, 32:976-991. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

288.                  Freud S: Two encyclopaedia articles. 18th edition. London: Vintage; 1923. OpenURL

289.                  Buckner RL, Andrews-Hanna JR, Schacter DL: The brain's default network: anatomy, function, and relevance to disease.

Ann NY Acad Sci 2008, 1124:1-38. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text OpenURL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Responsabile Editoriale : Giuseppe Leo

Copyright - Ce.Psi.Di. - Rivista "FRENIS ZERO" All rights reserved 2004-2005-2006-2007-2008-2009