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Self Discipline The word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit root
yuj, which
means "to unite." The yoga system provides a methodology for linking
up individual consciousness with the Supreme Consciousness. There are various
schools of yoga, among which bhakti-yoga, jnana-yoga, karma-yoga,
and kundalini-yoga are especially well known. The
yoga system
that is counted as one of the six systems of Vedic philosophy is the patanjala-yoga
system, which will be reviewed here. This school of yoga, also known
as astanga-yoga (the yoga of eight parts), is closely allied
to sankhya philosophy. Indeed,
astanga-yoga is the practical
application of sankhya philosophy for the attainment of liberation.
It is called patanjala-yoga because it was systematized by the sage
Patanjali. His work is known as Patanjala-yoga-sutra. There are
various commentaries on this text, Vyasa's being the most ancient and profound.
This yoga system attempts to explain the nature of mind, its modifications,
impediments to growth, afflictions, and the method for attaining what is
described as the highest goal of life: kaivalya (absoluteness).
The Yogic View of Mind
Theoretically, the yoga system is based on the same tenets as sankhya philosophy, and it also incorporates some of the teachings of Vedanta. In sankhya philosophy, the mental body is defined in terms of three functions or parts (mind, intelligence and false ego), but in vedanta philosophy the mental body is divided into four parts (mind, intelligence, false ego and citta or conditioned consciousness, the storehouse of memories). In yoga, however, the mental body is equated with the mind, and the intelligence and false ego are considered to be aspects of that mind. Citta denotes all the fluctuating and changing phenomena of the mind. According to yoga, the mind is like a vast lake, on the surface of which arise many different kinds of waves. Deep within, the mind is always calm and tranquil. But one's thought patterns stir it into activity and prevent it from realizing its own true nature. These thought patterns are the waves appearing and disappearing on the surface of the lake of the mind. Depending on the size, strength, and speed of the waves, the inner state of the lake is obscured to a greater or lesser degree. The more one is able to calm one's thought patterns, the more the inner state of the mind is unveiled. It is not very difficult to calm down the waves of thought patterns on the surface of the lake of mind, but it is very difficult to calm down those unrhythmic and destructive waves of thought patterns that arise from the bottom. Memories are like time bombs buried in the lake bed of mind that explode at certain times and disturb the entire lake. There are two main sources for the arising waves of thoughts: sense
perceptions and memories. When the waves of a lake are stilled and the
water is clear, one can look deep down and see the bottom of the lake.
Likewise when one's thought patterns are quieted, one can see one's innermost
potentials hidden deep within the mind. Because the mind is an evolute
of prakrti (see the previous chapter on sankhya philosophy),
it is composed of the elements of sattva, rajas, and tamas.
The relative proportions of these three qualities determine the different
states of citta, conditioned consciousness. The turmoil caused by
the interaction of the gunas is responsible for the arising thought
patterns in the mind.
Five Stages of Mind
These first three stages of mind are negative and act as impediments
in the path of growth and exploration. At this level, one experiences pain
and misery and all kinds of unpleasant emotions, but the next two stages
are more calm and peaceful. All the modifications are found in the earlier
three stages. In the one pointed and well-controlled states there are no
modifications at all. In the one-pointed state of mind (ekagra),
there is a predominance of sattva, the light aspect of prakrti.
This is a tranquil state near to complete stillness in which the real nature
of things is revealed. This fourth state is conducive to concentration,
and the aim of the yoga system is to develop or to maintain this
state of mind for as long and as consistently as possible. In the well-controlled
state of mind (niruddha), there is no disturbance at all but a pure
manifestation of sattvic energy. In this state, consciousness reflects
its purity and entirety in the mirror of mind, and one becomes capable
of exploring one's true nature. Only the last two states of mind are positive
and helpful for meditation, and many yogic practices are designed to help
one attain these states. When all the modifications cease and the state
of stillness is acquired, then purusa (pure consciousness) sees
its real nature reflecting from the screen of the mind.
The Modifications of the Mind
The sources of valid cognition are perception, inference, and authoritative testimony, which have already been described in detail in the sankhya chapter. False cognition is ignorance (avidya). Ignorance is mistaking the non-eternal for the eternal, the impure for the pure, misery for happiness, and the non self for the Self. It is the modification of mind that is the mother of the klesas, or afflictions. Ignorance has four offshoots: asmita, which is generally defined as I-am-ness; raga, attachment or addiction, which is the desire to prolong or repeat pleasurable experiences; dvesa, hatred or aversion, which is the desire to avoid unpleasurable experiences; and abhinivesa, fear of death, which is the urge of self-preservation. Verbal cognition is the attempt to grasp something that actually does
not exist but is one's own projection. An example of such a projection
is the fantasy of marrying a gossamer-winged fairy and together flying
through the empyrean to the most wondrous paradise. All such fantasies
are mere verbal cognition that do not correspond to facts and only cause
the mind to fluctuate. Sleep is a modification of mind in which one's relationship
with the external world is cut off. One might ask: If sleep is a modification
of mind, aren't the dreaming and waking states also accepted as modifications?
The answer would be no; the dreaming state is occupied with verbal cognition,
and the waking state is occupied mainly with valid cognition and invalid
cognition. Memory, the fifth and final mental modification, is the recall
of impressions stored in the mind.
Overcoming the Modifications
The Eightfold Path of Yoga
The Eight Limbs of Patanjala Yoga
[austerity, study, surrender = kriya-yoga] [From yamas to pranayama = hatha-yoga] [dharana, dhyana, samadhi = samyama]
Yama -- Restraints
Ahimsa. Ahimsa literally means "non injury" or "non-violence." Generally, one thinks of nonviolence as merely restraining from the physical act of violence, but in yoga scriptures nonviolence is to be practiced in thought, speech, and action. Satya. According to patanjala-yoga, one should be truthful to oneself and to others in thought, speech, and action. The yoga student is taught to speak what he thinks and to do what he says. Sometimes one lies without awareness or sometimes just for fun or for the sake of creating gossip. These simple lies are like seeds that create habits that will one day become one's nature. Thus one cannot even trust in himself because of his untruthful nature. The day a person becomes totally truthful, his whole life becomes successful and whatever he says or thinks comes true. He gains inner strength through which he overcomes all fear in his life. Asteya. Asteya, nonstealing provides a great opportunity for the practice of nonattachment and nonpossessiveness. Actually, nonstealing is a negative explanation of contentment, because when one is self-satisfied he is not tempted to desire others' things. Such a person considers whatever he has as sufficient and he does not allow himself to be enslaved by lust and greediness in order to attain desired objects by illegitimate means. The yoga system advises that nonstealing be practiced mentally, verbally, and physically. An honest author writes original thoughts, and if some material is borrowed from others, the author honestly and respectfully gives references. That is an example of nonstealing at the thought level. In the same way, nonstealing practiced at every level of the personality helps maintain purity of life, and purity of life allows one to shine and grow in all dimensions. Brahmacarya. Brahmacarya literally means "to act in brahman." One whose life's actions are always executed in the consciousness of "I am not the body" is called a brahmacari. The word brahmacarya is commonly translated as "sexual abstinence," but celibacy is only a partial explanation of this word. Sexual continence in itself is not the goal; the goal is to control the senses in order to achieve deeper levels of inner awareness. Patanjala-yoga takes brahmacarya in a wider sense to mean selectively performing only those activities that are helpful in achieving the highest goal of life. Brahmacarya is possible only when the mind is free from all sensuous desires, especially the sexual urge, which is the most powerful and which can be most destructive if not directed and channeled properly. Illicit sexual activity dissipates vital energy that is to be utilized for the attainment of higher consciousness. For achieving this goal, the yoga system advises one to organize all his sensory forces and to utilize them in a proper and beneficial way. It teaches control of sensual cravings in order to attain that inner peace and happiness that is greater than all transient bodily pleasures. Uncontrolled senses weaken the mind, and a weakened mind has no capacity to concentrate in one direction or on one object. A person with a mind weakened by lust fails to think properly, to speak properly, or to act properly. For higher attainment, one therefore has to withdraw his energies from the petty charms and temptations of sensory objects and convert the flow of the life force toward higher consciousness. Aparigraha. Aparigraha, nonpossessiveness, is generally
misunderstood to mean denying oneself all material possessions, but the
word actually indicates an inward attitude rather than an outward behavior.
The feeling of possessiveness is an expression of dissatisfaction, insecurity,
attachment, and greed. One who strives his whole life to gain more and
more worldly objects is never satisfied because that desire can never be
quenched. One who is constantly greedy for more forgets that it is impossible
to eat more than the stomach can holds to sleep on more ground than the
body covers, or to wear more clothes than the body requires. Whatever one
possesses that exceeds the essential requirements becomes a burden, and
instead of enjoying it one suffers in watching and taking care of it. A
person who desires more than that which is required is like a thief who
covets that which belongs to others. Nonpossessiveness does not mean that
one should not plan for the future or that one should give away all one's
money; it simply means that one should not be attached to what he has.
An attitude of possessiveness excludes one from all that one does not have,
but the practice of non possessiveness expands one's personality, and one
acquires more than he has mentally renounced.
Niyamas -- Observances
Sauca. In the context of yoga science, sauca refers to both physical and mental purity. Physical purity protects the body from diseases. and mental purity presents mental energy from being dissipated. Physical purity can be achieved easily, but one has to pay close attention to purity of mind, which depends on spiritual thinking, mindfulness, and discrimination. The yoga system places great emphasis on developing purity of the mind because concentration and inward exploration are impossible without it and because psychosomatic disease and emotional disturbance result from its absence. Santosa. Santosa, contentment, is a mental state in which even a beggar can live like a king. It is one's own desires that make one a mental beggar and keep one from being tranquil within. Contentment does not mean one should be passive or inactive, for practice of contentment must be coordinated with selfless action. Tapas. The word tapas literally means the generation of heat. A yogi who burns with the zeal for austerity is able to generate heat from within his body that keeps him warm and fit even in the icy wastes of the Himalayas. Therefore tapas is not to be understood as self-torture. The Bhagavad-gita clearly states that yoga is not for one who indulges the flesh nor for one who tortures it. One who is a real yogi enthusiastically takes up a life of healthy asceticism. He may thus gradually unlock mystical powers within himself. By these powers, the yogi is able to easily withstand intense cold or to go for long periods of time without eating, drinking or even breathing. But until such powers are unlocked, it is useless to try to imitate the accomplishments of tapas. Actually, supernatural powers are not the goal of tapas. The real goal is the development of a sincere enthusiasm for a life of austerity. Svadhyaya. Svadyaya includes studying the scriptures, hearing from saints and sages, and observing the lessons of experience through the eyes of spiritual revelation. Proper svadyaya requires discrimination, which means neither blind acceptance nor critical analysis of the sources of knowledge. One should glean the essence of the transcendental teachings and utilize this essence for practical advancement. Without discrimination, one may become confused by the apparent contradictions among different teachings from various scriptures and authorities. Therefore proper study is a skill that must be learned from one who has mastered the scriptures. Isvara pranidhana. Isvara pranidhana, surrender to the
Supreme Being, is the best method for protecting oneself from the dangers
of attachment, false identification, and the idea of "I am the doer". Surrender
is possible through cultivation of faith and devotion to the Lord within
the heart.
Asana -- Posture
The postures are broadly divided into two major categories: postures
for physical well-being and postures for meditation. The commentators on
Patanjali's sutras mention only a few postures that are helpful
in meditation, but later yoga scriptures describe a complete science
of postures for physical and mental well-being. There are eighty-four classical
postures, but only four of these are suggested for the practice of meditation.
These are sukhasana (the easy pose), svastikasana (the auspicious
pose), padmasana (the lotus pose), and siddhasana (the accomplished
pose). In all meditative postures, the emphasis is on keeping the head,
neck, and trunk straight. The spine being thus aligned provides steadiness
and comfort in the posture and minimizes the consumption of oxygen.
Pranayama -- Control of the Vital Force
This vital force animates all the energies involved in the physical and mental processes, and thus it is prana that sustains and activates the body and mind. Prana is the basic principle underlying all biophysical functions. Later writings of yoga explain a highly advanced science of prana, which yogis claim establishes the link between body and mind and vitalizes both. Because the breath is the grossest manifestation of this vital function, the science of prana is also called the science of breath. Continuous regulation of the breath strengthens the nervous system and harmonizes all mental activities. Yoga texts say that prana is the creator of all substances and the basis of all functions. The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad says that the thread of prana (vayu) runs through and holds together the whole universe. This thread is the cause of the creation, sustenance, and destruction of all substances in the world. The same life force on which humankind depends also sustains the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Prana sustains bodily functions as the subtle airs, which are energies of the subtle body that are controlled by the devas (demigods). Thus prana is the link between human beings and the controllers of the universe. The breath is the thread through which prana travels from the cosmos to the individual and from the individual to the cosmos. Depending on its function in different organs, prana is divided into ten types of subtle airs. The ten pranas are prana, upana, samana, udana, vyana, naga, kurma, krkala, devadatta, and dhananjaya. Of these ten, the first five are of most importance to the practice of patanjala-yoga. Prana. Prana here is used to designate a specific type of prana, the vital force of inspiration. In this context the word prana (pra + ana) means "that which draws in or takes in." The life force that receives the fresh cosmic vitality from the atmosphere activating the diaphragm, lungs, and nostrils, is called prana. The head, mouth, nostrils, chest (heart and lungs), navel, and big toes are said to be the main centers of prana. This important vital force resides in the brain and governs the functions of the senses and the process of thinking. Certain physical activities -- such as the ability of the cerebrum to receive the sensations of smell, sound, taste, touch, and vision, the function of the cranial nerves, and the power that governs all mental activities -- are the functions of prana. Primitive instincts, emotions, intelligence, self-control, memory, concentration, and the power of judgment or discrimination are manifestations of prana. As long as prana is in its normal state, all the organs function properly. Bodily toxins, intoxicants, malnutrition, the aging process, frustration, fatigue, restlessness, and physical and mental shocks disturb the vital force. When the vitality of the mind starts to decay due to such conditions, then higher abilities such as intelligence, memory, concentration, discrimination, and patience start to diminish, and the lower instincts or emotions become predominant. In the cosmos and in the body there is a continuous flow of solar and lunar energy, also referred to in yoga texts as positive and negative energy, as pitta and kappa, bile and phlegm, fire and water, light and darkness, male and female, and so on. When prana is predominated by solar energy, it is active and the right nostril is open. But when lunar energy predominates, it is passive and the left nostril is open. The flow of prana through the right or the left nostril provides specific conditions and changes in mood and behavior. Apana. Apana is the excretory vital force. Expulsive movements occurring in the bowels, bladder, uterus, seminal glands, and pores during defecation, urination, menstruation, ejaculation, perspiration, and all other kinds of excretions are due to the function of apana. The reproductive organs, anus, thighs, ribs, root of the navel, and the abdomen are said to be the abode of apana. When the excretory vital force, which functions through the thoracic and abdominal muscles, is disturbed, then symptoms such as sneezing, asthma, croup, or hiccups are observed. Samana. Samana is the digestive and assimilating force that makes food suitable for absorption and then assimilates it. This vital force is seen in the entire body, not just in the digestive system. Because of samana's presence in the skin, vitamin D can be absorbed from the ultraviolet rays of the sun. The region between the heart and the navel center is predominantly involved in the absorption and digestion of food, and this part of the body is therefore considered to be the main center of this vital force. This vital force is responsible for growth and nourishment. Abnormalities of the assimilating vital force result in nervous diarrhea, dyspepsia (impaired digestion), intestinal colic, spasmodic or nervous retention of urine, constipation, and the like. Udana. Udana means "energy that uplifts." It is the force that causes contraction in the thoracic muscles, thereby pushing air out through the vocal cords. It is, therefore, the main cause of the production of sound. All physical activities that require effort and strength depend on this vital force. It is said to be situated in the larynx, the upper part of the pelvis, all the joints, and the feet and hands. Vyana. Vyana is the contractile vital force. All rhythmic or nonrhythmic contractions take place because of this vital force. It pervades the whole body and governs the process of relaxing and contracting the voluntary and involuntary muscles. This force also governs movements of the ligaments and sends sensory and motor impulses through the nervous tissues. It is involved in the opening and closing of the eyes as well as the opening and closing of the glottis. The ears, eyes, neck, ankles, nose, and throat are said to be the main centers of this vital force in the body. Fibrosis, sclerosis, atrophy, and pain in muscular and nervous tissues are the result of abnormalities in the contractile vital force. Food and breath are the main vehicles through which prana enters the body. Food contains a grosser quality of prana than does the breath; one can live for a few days without food, but without breath one cannot function normally for even a minute. This is the reason that the yoga system places so much importance on the science of breath. The regulation of the movement of the lungs is the most effective process for cleansing and vitalizing the human system. It purifies and strengthens the nervous system, which coordinates all the other systems in the body. Yogis have developed a most intricate and deep science related to the nervous and circulatory systems, but this science goes beyond the mere study of nerves, veins, and arteries. The science of breath is related to subtle energy channels called nadis. According to yogis, the body is essentially a field of energy, but only a very small part of that energy is utilized, and so a great part of it remains dormant. With the help of pranayama (the science of prana), however, a student of yoga can unveil that energy field, expand it, and channel it to explore higher states of consciousness. Yogi texts say, "One who knows prana knows the Veda's highest knowledge," and one of the Upanisads proclaims that prana is brahman. The science of prana and the science of breath are thus of central importance in the yoga system. According to Patanjali, pranayama means to refine and regulate
the flow of inhalation and exhalation. When one can breathe deeply and
noiselessly without jerks or pauses, one can allow one's prana to
expand and to be awakened for higher attainments. Patanjali does not advise
the practice of pranayama until one has achieved a still and comfortable
posture. Postures that remove physical tension and provide stillness are
therefore the prerequisites to pranayama. Patanjali lists four kinds
of pranayama: external (bahya vrtti), in which the flow of
prank is controlled during the exhalation; internal (abhyantara vrtti),
in which the flow of prana is controlled during inhalation; and intermediate
(bahya-bhyantara-visayaksepi) in which the other two pranayamas
are refined, and the fourth (caturtha), in which pranayama
is transcended. The first three pranayamas must be regulated within
space and time, but the fourth pranayama is highly advanced and
transcends these limitations. When the external and internal pranayamas
become very subtle, then, because of intense concentration in a perfect,
relayed state, one loses awareness of time and space, and thus the fourth
pranayama
happens automatically. In this pranayama, the breath becomes so
fine and subtle that an ordinary breathing movement cannot be observed.
Without practical instruction from a competent teacher, it is not possible
to understand and apply this method of pranayama successfully. The
practice of pranayama prepares fertile ground for concentration.
The first four stages of yoga discussed thus far -- that is, yama,
niyama, asana, and pranayama -- are sometimes collectively known
as hatha-yoga.
Pratyahara -- Withdrawal of the Senses
Patanjali defines pratyahara as the withdrawal of the senses from their objects and their establishment in the mind. The senses are constant]y wandering from one object to another, and the mind also wanders with them, although the mind is more subtle than the senses. The senses are the vehicles of the mind as it travels on its journey, but the mind is master of the senses because without it, the senses could not contact or experience any objects. Wherever there is contact of the senses with their objects, the mind is necessarily involved, so withdrawal of the senses actually means withdrawal of the mind. Vyasa, the Yoga-sutras' commentator, therefore says that when the senses are disconnected from their objects, they dwell in or dissolve into the mind. Once the modifications of the mind are controlled, it is not necessary to make any extra effort to control the senses. When the queen bee (mind) flies, all the bees (senses) fly, and when she sits, all the bees sit around her. Relaxation is actually the practice of pratyahara. When one wants
to relax a limb of his body, he simply disconnects the communication of
the mind and the senses to that particular limb. This is called releasing
tension, and when one has mastered voluntary relaxation in this way, he
attains perfect control over the senses and mind and enters a state of
concentration. The process of withdrawing the senses and the mind is actually
the process of recollecting the scattered forces of the senses and mind.
When these forces are no longer dissipated, concentration naturally takes
place.
Dharana -- Concentration
There are five factors that are helpful in bringing the mind to a state of concentration. One cannot focus the mind unless one has interest in the object on which one wants to concentrate, so developing interest is the first step. With interest, attention can then be developed. Voluntary focusing based on interest and directed by will power and strengthened by determination results in paying full attention to an object. Practice is the next requisite. Regular repetition of techniques that help the mind to flow spontaneously without a break helps form the habit of concentration. For example, setting a specific practice time, choosing a favorable environment, keeping a proper diet, and regulating sleep make it easier to concentrate the mind. Next, using the same straight, steady, and comfortable seated posture every time one practices and using a smooth, deep, and regular diaphragmatic breathing pattern help one keep the mind and body calm, yet alert. Finally, a calm mind is necessary because an emotionally disturbed mind cannot concentrate. An attitude of detachment from external objects and of witnessing one's own physical and mental activity calms the mind and develops emotional maturity. When the student practices concentration, he is advised not to exert undue effort because effort leads to tension, and tension dissipates or disturbs the nervous system and senses as well as the mind. There are various kinds of concentration: gross and subtle, outer and
inner, subjective and objective, and so on. According to Vyasa's commentary
on the Yoga-sutras, one can concentrate internally on some point
within the body, such as the cardiac center, the base of the bridge between
the nostrils, or the tip of the tongue; or one can concentrate externally
on any selected object. If the object of concentration is pleasant, beautiful,
and interesting, then it is easy for the mind to focus on it for a long
time. Using a mantra or the breath for the object of concentration is considered
to be the best method for learning to focus the mind one- pointedly in
preparation for attaining a meditative state.
Dhyana -- Mediation
Samadhi -- Spiritual Absorption
In different yoga traditions this state is called soundless sound,
the state of silence, or the highest state of peace and happiness. There
are two stages of samadhi: sabija and nirbija. Sabija samadhi
means samadhi "with seeds." In this state, the sense of individual interest
separate from the Supersoul is retained and the seeds of desire and attachment
still remain in latent form. In the state of nirbija or seedless
samadhi,
however, the individual consciousness is completely united with the Supreme
Soul. This may understood in two ways. If the yogi surrenders all
separate interests and serves only the interests of the
paramatma,
he becomes a pure devotee of God and by the Lord's mercy gains entry into
the eternal spiritual realm (Vaikuntha). But if the yogi identifies
with the paramatma as his own self, he is absorbed into the body
of the Lord. This is called isvara-sayuja (merging into the Supreme
Lord Vishnu). The first is a devotional union with God, the second is nondevotional.
Generally the followers of the patanjala-yoga system aspire for
the second kind of union.
Samyama
The Concept of God
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