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The current state of personality assessment for clinical purposes is
largely dominated by the everpresent Big Five model, a taxonomy for
personality traits based on language descriptors. This model is
consistent with the Lexical hypothesis, which claims that the
personality characteristics most important to people become, sooner or
later, part of their language; furthermore, these traits are likely to
be represented in language by a single word, as individuated in the
five factors of this model: openness to experience, conscientiousness,
extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. These were established using
factor analysis in the 90s, making this model intrinsically
theory-free. This top-down approach to the daunting task of
classifying human personality traits, however allencompassing and
noteworthy from certain perspectives, is flawed in the sense that it
does not account for what biologically causes our personality.
There
is much that is still unknown about the complex workings of the brain,
however, it is possible to ascertain that personality is largely
determined by the fine tuning of certain systems (or circuits), mostly
involving anatomically ancient structures. To find these underlying
mechanisms, classify and methodically investigate the influence they
have on the behaviour of animals, has been one of Jaak Panksepp’s
most important contributions to the fields of neuroscience and
psychology. In essence, he gave birth to the field of Affective
Neuroscience.
Affective
Neuroscience is the study of the subcortical affective BrainMind (the
term Panksepp used to underline the assumption of monism). One of
Panksepp’s main works, The Archaeology of Mind: Neuroevolutionary
Origins of Human Emotions, offers an evidence-based taxonomy of the
seven primary emotional systems that explain why and how we behave the
way we do. These systems have been found to be common across all
mammalian species and constitute effective evolutionary solutions for
successful animal life on earth. The seven circuits (and corresponding
behaviours) Panksepp identified in his research are: SEEKING (exploration,
motivation), RAGE (anger), FEAR (anxiety), PANIC (sadness), PLAY (joy),
CARE (nurturance), LUST (sexual arousal).
In
fact, since the primary emotions that are generated in those systems
have intrinsically pleasant or unpleasant affects, they have a
learning-facilitating function that is basically a “birthright
survival system” for all mammals. This has already been thoroughly
demonstrated by Panksepp (see J. PANKSEPP, L. BIVEN, The Archaeology
of Mind, W.W. Norton Company, 2012) using a variety of methods. For
example, he showed that the artificial stimulation of some of those
systems can be used as reward/punishment in a behavioural task with
high effectiveness. The system of PLAY for instance, when activated,
produces an internal state so pleasing that the animal actively seeks
it; connecting the pressing of a lever (or whatever action needs to be
trained) with the stimulation of this system leads to the
reinforcement of that behaviour. Since the way we react to external
stimuli, both in terms of our explicit behaviours and our internal
states, can be considered to constitute our personality, these
subcortical systems are the causal mechanisms that give rise to
personality. Hence their importance in Panksepp’s work.
The
theory of personality built on the principles of affective
neuroscience proposes the existence of endophenotypes, which are
primary emotionalaffective personality profiles generated initially
from our individual genomes; LUST has been inexplicably excluded from
the systems that define our personality. Items in questionnaires such
as the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ) do not tap directly into the
primary emotions that define endophenotypes, hence cannot be used to
measure them. However, the Affective Neuroscience Personality Scale (ANPS)
was specifically built to test Panksepp’s hypothesis that such
endophenotypes exist. Its items are very explicit in asking about
primary emotions so that only a minimum degree of cognitive processing
is required to answer. Of course, ANPS is only a language-based report.
More direct data will be needed to support Panksepp’s view, which,
given the present level of technology, is still difficult to obtain.
The ANPS is composed of 112 items arranged in fourteen blocks that
include one question for each system plus one related to Spirituality
and a filler research question; the complete version can be found in
the appendix of the book.
One
of the main problems identified in clinical applications of the BFQ is
the genericity of the factor Emotional Stability, which lumps together
an array of negative affects, that correspond to activity in the FEAR,
RAGE and PANIC emotional systems. Considering that the extremes of
each of these emotions lead to different psychopathologies, it is
important that the tests we use can distinguish between them. A person
might have considerable issues in controlling anger but not suffer
from depressive feelings and/or anxiety. Yet, this simple example
would result in a medium to high score in the Emotional Stability
factor, which does not give the clinician any insight whatsoever into
the specificity of the patient’s sufferings. The Affective
Neuroscience Personality Scale, instead, classifies symptoms on the
basis of the dysregulated emotional system that brought them about.
For this reason, the resulting scales are more useful for diagnostic
purposes than the Emotional Stability factor in the BFQ.
Considering
the shortcomings of the Big Five model and the fact that Panksepp does
not rely on it but developed the ANPS as an alternative scale to
measure personality, it is perhaps strange that such a large portion
of the book is dedicated to it. However, the attention he devotes to
the Big Five is justified by the deeply-rooted position this model
holds in the field of personality psychology worldwide; to challenge
such a pillar of the field requires extensive discussion of its merits
and flaws, otherwise the author’s proposal for a new system would
lack legitimacy.
As
Panksepp underlines in the chapter on Epigenetics and
Psychopharmacology, the new model for personality has had an
enthusiastic reception as well as many successful applications.
Biotechnological studies have shown that personality traits acquired
through epigenetic mechanisms are among the characteristics which can
be inherited. Spending quality emotional time with parents can, thanks
to epigenetics, promote the development of these emotional systems in
such a way that reduces the incidence of problems like Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the necessity for
pharmaceutical treatment later on. The same principle applies at a
cultural level: in play-promoting environments, the PLAY system is
more stimulated and becomes stronger, providing a protective factor
against the development of personality related disorders. This feature
is also inheritable due to epigenetic mechanisms.
In
the field of neuropsychopharmacology, the research conducted on the
mammalian BrainMind on the basis of Panksepp’s model has led to the
development of three new antide-pressant treatments: the molecule
GLYX-13 for the treatment of depressive symptoms has already passed
toxicology tests and is having significant effects; deep-brain
stimulation (DBS) of the SEEKING system is effective in counteracting
major depression symptomatology, up to the point of eventually
reversing it; and the opioid buprenorphine has been shown to be highly
effective for the treatment of suicidal thoughts deriving from
hyperactivity of the PAIN/Sadness system.
The
Emotional Foundations of Personality can be considered a textbook,
both in terms of its content and structure. The background topics,
especially Affective Neuroscience and the history of personality
studies, are discussed in the beginning of the book, providing the
necessary foundation for the more technical chapters at the end, which
present neuroimaging studies and evidence from the field of
neuropsychopharmacology. The book is structured in a way that allows
the reader to peruse any chapter independently of the others. On the
one hand, this is positive as the reader can focus only on the
sections they are particularly interested in; on the other hand, the
price paid for the independence of the chapters is a certain
repetitiveness: the most crucial information is examined time and
again throughout the book, excessively prolonging the reading
experience, which, at times, can also feel a little fragmented.
In
spite of this, Panksepp’s work is certainly worth reading. This
insightful book not only puts forward a fascinating new approach to
personality theory but also provides a thorough account of all the
steps taken to make it useful also for clinical purposes. At various
points throughout the discussion, the author states that further
research is needed to develop the field of Affective Neurosciences and
to improve its clinical applications; still, plenty has already been
done. To all interested in knowing more about the subject, Panksepp’s
book and the twenty-eight pages of references included in it are
undoubtedly a very good starting point.
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Foto: Jaak Panksepp (1943-2017)
Per
leggere la recensione in italiano 
